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The FDA has approved DBS devices for the treatment of both Parkinson’s Disease and Dystonia<ref name=":5" />. There are several risks involved with this treatment, such as depression, hypo-mania, euphoria, mirth, and hypersexuality. However, permanent complications are rare<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burn|first=David J.|last2=Tröster|first2=Alexander I.|date=2004-08-05|title=Neuropsychiatric Complications of Medical and Surgical Therapies for Parkinson’s Disease|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0891988704267466|journal=Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology|language=en-US|volume=17|issue=3|pages=172–180|doi=10.1177/0891988704267466|issn=0891-9887}}</ref>. DBS has also been used to Tourette Syndrome<ref name=":5" />, dyskinesia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Apetauerova|first=Diana|last2=Ryan|first2=R. Kevin|last3=Ro|first3=Susie I.|last4=Arle|first4=Jeffrey|last5=Shils|first5=Jay|last6=Papavassiliou|first6=Efstathios|last7=Tarsy|first7=Daniel|date=2006|title=End of day dyskinesia in advanced Parkinson's disease can be eliminated by bilateral subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus deep brain stimulation|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/mds.20896|journal=Movement Disorders|language=en|volume=21|issue=8|pages=1277–1279|doi=10.1002/mds.20896|issn=1531-8257}}</ref> eppilepsy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wu|first=Chengyuan|last2=Sharan|first2=Ashwini D.|date=2013|title=Neurostimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy: A Review of Current Surgical Interventions|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1525-1403.2012.00501.x|journal=Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=10–24|doi=10.1111/j.1525-1403.2012.00501.x|issn=1525-1403}}</ref> and depression<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moreines|first=Jared L.|last2=McClintock|first2=Shawn M.|last3=Holtzheimer|first3=Paul E.|date=2011-01-01|title=Neuropsychological Effects of Neuromodulation Techniques for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Review|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3023999/|journal=Brain stimulation|volume=4|issue=1|pages=17–27|doi=10.1016/j.brs.2010.01.005|issn=1935-861X|pmc=3023999|pmid=21255751}}</ref>, although more research is needed in these areas before it can be deemed safe.
The FDA has approved DBS devices for the treatment of both Parkinson’s Disease and Dystonia<ref name=":5" />. There are several risks involved with this treatment, such as depression, hypo-mania, euphoria, mirth, and hypersexuality. However, permanent complications are rare<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burn|first=David J.|last2=Tröster|first2=Alexander I.|date=2004-08-05|title=Neuropsychiatric Complications of Medical and Surgical Therapies for Parkinson’s Disease|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0891988704267466|journal=Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology|language=en-US|volume=17|issue=3|pages=172–180|doi=10.1177/0891988704267466|issn=0891-9887}}</ref>. DBS has also been used to Tourette Syndrome<ref name=":5" />, dyskinesia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Apetauerova|first=Diana|last2=Ryan|first2=R. Kevin|last3=Ro|first3=Susie I.|last4=Arle|first4=Jeffrey|last5=Shils|first5=Jay|last6=Papavassiliou|first6=Efstathios|last7=Tarsy|first7=Daniel|date=2006|title=End of day dyskinesia in advanced Parkinson's disease can be eliminated by bilateral subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus deep brain stimulation|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/mds.20896|journal=Movement Disorders|language=en|volume=21|issue=8|pages=1277–1279|doi=10.1002/mds.20896|issn=1531-8257}}</ref> eppilepsy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wu|first=Chengyuan|last2=Sharan|first2=Ashwini D.|date=2013|title=Neurostimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy: A Review of Current Surgical Interventions|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1525-1403.2012.00501.x|journal=Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=10–24|doi=10.1111/j.1525-1403.2012.00501.x|issn=1525-1403}}</ref> and depression<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moreines|first=Jared L.|last2=McClintock|first2=Shawn M.|last3=Holtzheimer|first3=Paul E.|date=2011-01-01|title=Neuropsychological Effects of Neuromodulation Techniques for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Review|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3023999/|journal=Brain stimulation|volume=4|issue=1|pages=17–27|doi=10.1016/j.brs.2010.01.005|issn=1935-861X|pmc=3023999|pmid=21255751}}</ref>, although more research is needed in these areas before it can be deemed safe.


=== Human enhancement ===
=== Human Enhancement ===


Enhancing the human experience is another application of neurohacking. Methods include simple brain-training games, chemical enhancers, and electrical brain stimulation.
There are numerous examples of the use of neural implants for therapy, however the only experiments involving hacking into the nervous system for enhancement appear to be those conducted by [[Kevin Warwick]]. In a series of experiments at the [[University of Reading]], Warwick became the first human recipient of a [[BrainGate]] electrode array implant on 14 March 2002, into the [[median nerve]] of his left arm. With this in place he was able to control a [[robot arm]] to copy his own hand movements.<ref>Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Andrews, B, Teddy, P and Shad, A:“The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems”, ''Archives of Neurology'', 60(10), pp1369-1373, 2003</ref> Warwick's nervous system was also connected with the internet in [[Columbia University]], New York to enable him to control the [[robot arm]] in the University of Reading, also receiving feedback from sensors in the finger tips. A simpler array was implanted into the arm of Warwick's wife. With this in place they were able to achieve the first direct electronic communication between the nervous systems of two humans.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Thought Communication and Control: A First Step using Radiotelegraphy|journal= IEE Proceedings - Communications|volume=151|issue=3|pages=185|doi=10.1049/ip-com:20040409|year=2004|last1=Warwick|first1=K.|last2=Gasson|first2=M.|last3=Hutt|first3=B.|last4=Goodhew|first4=I.|last5=Kyberd|first5=P.|last6=Schulzrinne|first6=H.|last7=Wu|first7=X.}}</ref>

Caffeine is an effective method for enhancing human performance in everyday life. Caffeine is the most popular drug in the world (humans drink a collective 1.6 billion cups per day) and is also the most popular method by which people are neurohacking<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cappelletti|first=Simone|last2=Daria|first2=Piacentino|last3=Sani|first3=Gabriele|last4=Aromatario|first4=Mariarosaria|date=January 2015|title=Caffeine: Cognitive and Physical Performance Enhancer or Psychoactive Drug?|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4462044/|journal=Current Neuropharmacology|volume=13|issue=1|pages=71–88|doi=10.2174/1570159X13666141210215655|issn=1570-159X|pmc=4462044|pmid=26074744|via=}}</ref>. Caffeine improves memory, sociability, and alertness<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/science-of-why-caffeine-makes-you-productive-2014-5|title=This Video Shows The Science Behind Caffeine's Productivity-Enhancing Effects|last=Baer|first=Drake|website=Business Insider|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref>.


=== Information retrieval ===
=== Information retrieval ===

Revision as of 19:16, 3 April 2020


Neurohacking is a subclass of biohacking, focused specifically on the brain. Neurohackers seek to better themselves or others by “hacking the brain” to improve reflexes, learn faster, or to treat psychological disorders[1]. The modern neurohacking movement has been around since the 1980s. However, herbal supplements have been used to increase brain function for hundreds of years. After a brief period marked by a lack of research in the area, neurohacking started regaining interest in the early 2000s[2][3]. Currently, most neurohacking is performed via do-it-yourself (DIY) methods by in-home users[1].

Simple uses of neurohacking include the use of chemical supplements to increase brain function[4]. More complex medical devices can be implanted to treat psychological disorders and illnesses[5].

History

Anna Wexler, a member of the Department of Science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, claims that neurohacking should be viewed as a subdivision of the ‘life hacking’ movement [1]. She argues that popularized scientific publications have led to a greater public awareness of neuroscience since the turn of the century[6]. As a result, the public was made aware of the brain’s plasticity and its potential to improve[6].

The use of mind-altering substances derived from plants dates back to ancient history[7].  Neurohackers use a class of chemical substances that improve higher order brain functions called nootropics. The term nootropics was first proposed in 1972 by Corneliu Giurgea, a Romanian chemist from University of Bucharest[8].

In his study, he classified Piracetam as a nootropic and determined that nootropics should fit the following criteria:

  • Enhance learning
  • Resist impairing agents
  • Augment informational transfer between the two hemisphere of the brain
  • Heighten the brain’s resistance against various forms of “aggressions”
  • Improved “tonic, cortico-subcortical ‘control’”
  • Lack of pharmacological effects of other common psychoactive drugs[8].

Today, various nootropics are available via prescription and over the counter[9].

The 2000 study by Michael A. Nitsche and Walter Paulus at the University of Goettingen is considered to be the one of the first device-oriented attempts at influencing the brain non-invasively. The study found that the motor cortex of the brain responds to weak electrical stimuli in the form of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)[10][11]. A later study in 2003 by Branislav Savic and Beat Meier found that (tDCS) improves motor sequence learning[12]. More recent studies have concluded that tDCS may alleviate neuropathic pain, depression, schizophrenia, and other neurological disorders[11]. Methods of non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) have been found to enhance human performance. In 2019, a study funded by the US Department of Defense found that cognition and motor performance could be improved by tDCS. This investigation showed that tDCS could be used to enhance the abilities of military personnel. However, side effects such as “itching, tingling, and headaches” were noted[13]. The study concluded that more research into adequate safety regulations is needed before it can be properly implemented[13].

A resurgence in the popularity of at-home and DIY neurohacking started in 2011[1][14]. The recent availability of brain stimulation devices contributed to the rise in the home neurohacking movement[1]. Individuals applied weak electrical currents to their brain in hopes of improving performance and productivity[14]. Since 2017, neurohacking devices have been available to the general public for unsupervised use. However, these methods of neurohacking have yet to gain widespread acceptance from the general public, and user retention rate for the devices remains low[1][11].

In 2018, Marom Bikson and his colleagues at the City college of New York released a report to aid consumers in making an informed choice regarding the purchase of tDCS devices[11]. In particular, Bikson stated that the report hoped to educate consumers on the reasons why a significant price differentiation existed across the various devices on the market.

Applications

Many applications of neurohacking center around improving quality of life[1].

Mental Health

Bettering people’s mental health is one primary application of neurohacking.

Virtual reality exposure therapy is one application of neurohacking, and is being used to treat post traumatic stress. The USC Institute for Creative Technologies has been working on exposure therapy techniques since 2005, and exposure therapy is now an evidence based treatment for post traumatic stress[15].

Exposure therapy retrains the mind of the patient to reduce the fear associated with feeling a certain way or experiencing certain triggering stimuli[16]. By confronting situations in a safe and controlled virtual reality environment, the patient is able to reduce the anxiety associated with those circumstances.

The FDA has approved DBS devices for the treatment of both Parkinson’s Disease and Dystonia[5]. There are several risks involved with this treatment, such as depression, hypo-mania, euphoria, mirth, and hypersexuality. However, permanent complications are rare[17]. DBS has also been used to Tourette Syndrome[5], dyskinesia[18] eppilepsy[19] and depression[20], although more research is needed in these areas before it can be deemed safe.

Human Enhancement

Enhancing the human experience is another application of neurohacking. Methods include simple brain-training games, chemical enhancers, and electrical brain stimulation.

Caffeine is an effective method for enhancing human performance in everyday life. Caffeine is the most popular drug in the world (humans drink a collective 1.6 billion cups per day) and is also the most popular method by which people are neurohacking[21]. Caffeine improves memory, sociability, and alertness[22].

Information retrieval

The term neurohacking is also used for a method of attempting to retrieve information from the brain (such as passwords, locations, etc..) without consent; presently no technology exists for such a tactic. The concept has been used much in science fiction (e.g. the film "The Matrix"). In data retrieval, some sort of brain–computer interface (BCI) is typically used, where the brains neuron synapses are somehow captured or recorded to be processed for information. Promoters of this concept generally refer to the MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) or MEG (magnetoencephalography) to support the plausibility of this concept. Although some sort of neuroimaging could someday be used, the accuracy of any present day method is not nearly close enough. For instance, it is assumed that neurohacking requires detection of the state of individual neurons (approximately 1 micrometer diameter) while the resolution of the MEG is several thousand neurons and other imaging systems may be even larger. It is estimated that usable neurohacking of this type is still many decades away.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Wexler, Anna (2017). "The Social Context of "Do-It-Yourself" Brain Stimulation: Neurohackers, Biohackers, and Lifehackers". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 11. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00224. ISSN 1662-5161.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  2. ^ Onaolapo, Adejoke Yetunde; Obelawo, Adebimpe Yemisi; Onaolapo, Olakunle James (May 2019). "Brain Ageing, Cognition and Diet: A Review of the Emerging Roles of Food-Based Nootropics in Mitigating Age-Related Memory Decline". Current Aging Science. 12 (1): 2–14. doi:10.2174/1874609812666190311160754. ISSN 1874-6098. PMC 6971896. PMID 30864515.
  3. ^ Katz, Sylvan. "Forum: Roses are black, violets are green - The emergence of amateur genetic engineers". New Scientist. Retrieved 2020-04-03.
  4. ^ Knapton, Sarah (2019-11-02). "Neurohacking cream which helps you learn guitar faster available in five years". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2020-04-03.
  5. ^ a b c Health, Center for Devices and Radiological (2019-02-09). "Vercise Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) System - P150031". FDA.
  6. ^ a b O'Connor, Cliodhna; Rees, Geraint; Joffe, Helene (2012-04-26). "Neuroscience in the public sphere". Neuron. 74 (2): 220–226. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.04.004. ISSN 1097-4199. PMID 22542177.
  7. ^ Crocq, Marc-Antoine (December 2007). "Historical and cultural aspects of man's relationship with addictive drugs". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 9 (4): 355–361. ISSN 1294-8322. PMC 3202501. PMID 18286796.
  8. ^ a b Giurgea, C.; Salama, M. (1977-01-01). "Nootropic drugs". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology. 1 (3): 235–247. doi:10.1016/0364-7722(77)90046-7. ISSN 0364-7722.
  9. ^ "Nootropics: Types, safety, and risks of smart drugs". www.medicalnewstoday.com. Retrieved 2020-04-03.
  10. ^ Nitsche, Michael; Paulus, Walter (2000-10-01). "Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation". The Journal of physiology. 527 Pt 3: 633–9. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00633.x.
  11. ^ a b c d Landhuis, Esther. "Do D.I.Y. Brain-Booster Devices Work?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-04-03.
  12. ^ Savic, Branislav; Meier, Beat (2016-02-10). "How Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Can Modulate Implicit Motor Sequence Learning and Consolidation: A Brief Review". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 10. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00026. ISSN 1662-5161. PMC 4748051. PMID 26903837.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ a b Davis, Steven E.; Smith, Glen A. (2019-04-18). "Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Use in Warfighting: Benefits, Risks, and Future Prospects". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 13. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00114. ISSN 1662-5161. PMC 6499187. PMID 31105538.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  14. ^ a b Wexler, Anna (2016-04-01). "The practices of do-it-yourself brain stimulation: implications for ethical considerations and regulatory proposals". Journal of Medical Ethics. 42 (4): 211–215. doi:10.1136/medethics-2015-102704. ISSN 0306-6800. PMID 26324456.
  15. ^ Rizzo, Albert (March 2016). "Bravemind: Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy". Retrieved April 3, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ^ Zoellner, Lori A.; Feeny, Norah C.; Bittinger, Joyce N.; Bedard-Gilligan, Michele A.; Slagle, David M.; Post, Loren M.; Chen, Jessica A. (2011-09-01). "Teaching Trauma-Focused Exposure Therapy for PTSD: Critical Clinical Lessons for Novice Exposure Therapists". Psychological trauma : theory, research, practice and policy. 3 (3): 300–308. doi:10.1037/a0024642. ISSN 1942-9681. PMC 3188445. PMID 21984956.
  17. ^ Burn, David J.; Tröster, Alexander I. (2004-08-05). "Neuropsychiatric Complications of Medical and Surgical Therapies for Parkinson's Disease". Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 17 (3): 172–180. doi:10.1177/0891988704267466. ISSN 0891-9887.
  18. ^ Apetauerova, Diana; Ryan, R. Kevin; Ro, Susie I.; Arle, Jeffrey; Shils, Jay; Papavassiliou, Efstathios; Tarsy, Daniel (2006). "End of day dyskinesia in advanced Parkinson's disease can be eliminated by bilateral subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus deep brain stimulation". Movement Disorders. 21 (8): 1277–1279. doi:10.1002/mds.20896. ISSN 1531-8257.
  19. ^ Wu, Chengyuan; Sharan, Ashwini D. (2013). "Neurostimulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy: A Review of Current Surgical Interventions". Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface. 16 (1): 10–24. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1403.2012.00501.x. ISSN 1525-1403.
  20. ^ Moreines, Jared L.; McClintock, Shawn M.; Holtzheimer, Paul E. (2011-01-01). "Neuropsychological Effects of Neuromodulation Techniques for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Review". Brain stimulation. 4 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2010.01.005. ISSN 1935-861X. PMC 3023999. PMID 21255751.
  21. ^ Cappelletti, Simone; Daria, Piacentino; Sani, Gabriele; Aromatario, Mariarosaria (January 2015). "Caffeine: Cognitive and Physical Performance Enhancer or Psychoactive Drug?". Current Neuropharmacology. 13 (1): 71–88. doi:10.2174/1570159X13666141210215655. ISSN 1570-159X. PMC 4462044. PMID 26074744.
  22. ^ Baer, Drake. "This Video Shows The Science Behind Caffeine's Productivity-Enhancing Effects". Business Insider. Retrieved 2020-04-03.

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External links


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