1 Timothy 2:12

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1 Timothy 2:12 is a passage from the first letter, I Timothy, of the pastoral epistles in the New Testament. The excerpt is typically raised in opposition to women being ordained as clergy and holding certain other positions of ministry and leadership in Christianity.[1] It is a key passage in the debate between complementarianism, which holds that men and women are of equal intrinsic worth but should have different and complementary roles in the church and in society, and egalitarianism, which argues for no institutional distinctions between men and women. Application of the passage varies, with women in some complementarian churches (perhaps trending to the more extreme view of chauvinism) being denied a vote in church affairs, denied the right to serve as teachers of adult Bible classes or as missionaries, and generally disenfranchised from the duties and privileges of church leadership,[2][3] while other complementarian churches allow women to perform any role (including that of deacon) available to a non-ordained man.

Complementarians hold that Paul's personal direction contained in this passage should be accepted as normative in the church today. Egalitarians have made various opposing arguments, including that the passage does not carry the same meaning for the modern church when interpreted in light of the socio-cultural situation of Paul's time; that a key word in the passage should be reinterpreted to mean something other than "exercising authority"; or that Paul never intended the passage to apply to the church at all times and places.

The traditional view holds that the words, "I suffer not a woman...," in 1 Timothy 2:12 are Paul's own words. However, many modern scholars believe on the basis of content, vocabulary, and literary style that 1 Timothy, as well as a few other Pauline letters, are pseudepigraphical (see Authorship of the Pauline epistles).[4]:p.173 While the scholarly consensus regards the text as original to 1 Timothy, a fringe view holds that this verse fits poorly with Paul's more positive references to Christian women and may be a later interpolation rather than part of the original text.[5][6]

Contents

[edit] Interpretive approaches

Interpretation of this passage is typically considered complex.[7] N.T. Wright says that 1 Timothy 2 is the "hardest passage of all" to exegete properly.[8] A number of interpretive approaches to the text have been made by complementarians and egalitarians.

Egalitarian and complementarian interpretive approaches to the text typically take the following forms.

  • Socio-cultural: egalitarians argue that the text was intended for a specific socio-cultural environment which no longer exists and that the text is therefore not relevant to modern churches[9] (typically rely heavily on historical reconstructions using extra-biblical sources); complementarians argue that the socio-cultural environment (while relevant), does not restrict the application of the verse to a specific time and place in the past[10]
  • Lexical: egalitarians argue that the meaning of the key word in the text, authenteō, does not support the exclusion of women from authoritative teaching positions in the congregation;[11] complementarians argue that the meaning of this word in its context indicates that Paul did not wish women to have authority over men in the church[12]
  • Hermeneutical: egalitarians argue that the text was intended only to limit women for a specific temporary duration, or that it was intended only to limit uneducated women who were unfit to speak in the congregation;[13] complementarians argue that hermeneutical considerations indicate the text is universal in its application to Christian congregations[14]

[edit] Socio-cultural

The egalitarian socio-cultural position has been represented prominently by classicist Catherine Kroeger and theologian Richard Kroeger. They believe the author of 1 Timothy was refuting false teaching, rather than establishing a narrow restriction on women's role. In their thoroughly documented text,[9] the Kroegers maintain that Paul was uniquely addressing the Ephesian situation because of its feminist religious culture where women had usurped religious authority over men. They cite a wide range of primary sources to support their case that the Ephesian women were teaching a particular gnostic notion concerning Eve. They advocate that ancient Greco-Roman world thought patterns faced by the writer of the Pastoral Epistles are germane to interpreting his writings. However, the Kroeger's historical reconstruction has not found scholarly support among historians, nor even significant support among Bible scholars; their conclusions have been rejected by professional historians,[15][16][17] as well as by mainstream complementarians and egalitarians.[18][19][20][21][22][23]

[edit] Lexical

Catherine Kroeger has been one of the major proponents of egalitarian lexical arguments that the key word in the text, authenteō, does not support the exclusion of women from authoritative teaching positions in the congregation. In 1979 Kroeger asserted the meaning of the word was "to engage in "fertility practices",[11] but this found no support from the scholarly consensus, and was rejected even by some egalitarians.[24] In 1992 Richard and Catherine Kroeger asserted a different meaning for the word, "to represent herself as originator of [man]", which was also rejected by the scholarly consensus.[25][26] Details of lexical and syntactical studies into the meaning of "authenteō" by both egalitarians and complementarians are found further down in this article.

[edit] Hermeneutical

Egalitarian Aida Spencer[27] and Wheaton New Testament scholar Gilbert Bilezikian[4] have argued that the prohibition on women speaking in the congregation was only intended to be a temporary response to women who were teaching error. This suggestion has found no support from the scholarly consensus, and has been rejected by a number of egalitarians as highly improbable.[28][29][30][31]

Bilezikian has also proposed that Paul may have been distinguishing between qualified, trained teachers and some of the unschooled women who struggled to assert themselves as teachers with their newly found freedom in Christianity.[4] This view is opposed by egalitarians Barron[32] and Fee.[33] Bilezikian suggests further that the fledgling church at Ephesus had been formed among confrontations of superstitious, occult practices.[4] This view is opposed by egalitarians such as Liefeld,[34] as well as by complementarians such as Schreiner.[35] In contrast to the text found in modern English translations of the Bible, Bilezikian paraphrases 1 Timothy 2:11-15 thus:

Women in Ephesus should first become learners,v.11 and quit acting as teachers or assuming the authority of recognized teachers.v.12 Just as Eve rather than Adam was deceived into error, unqualified persons will get themselves and the church in trouble.v.13-14. Yet, as Eve became the means and the first beneficiary of promised salvation, so Ephesian women will legitimately aspire to maturity and competency and to positions of service in the church.v.15

— Dr. Gilbert Bilezikian

[edit] Meaning of authenteō

The meaning of authentein (authenteō), in verse 12 has been the source of considerable differences of opinion among biblical scholars in recent decades. The first is that the lexical history of this word is long and complex. Walter Liefeld describes briefly the word's problematically broad semantic range:

"A perplexing issue for all is the meaning of authentein. Over the course of its history this verb and its associated noun have had a wide semantic range, including some bizarre meanings, such as committing suicide, murdering one's parents, and being sexually aggressive. Some studies have been marred by a selective and improper use of the evidence."[36]

[edit] Bible translations

The issue is compounded by the fact that this word is found only once in the New Testament, and is not common in immediately proximate Greek literature. Nevertheless, English Bible translations over the years have been generally in agreement when rendering the word. In the translations below, the words corresponding to authenteō are in bold italics:

  • KJV 12But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
  • RSV 12I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over men; she is to keep silent.
  • GNB 12I do not allow them to teach or to have authority over men; they must keep quiet.
  • NIV 12I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent.
  • CEV 12They should be silent and not be allowed to teach or to tell men what to do.
  • NASB 12But I do not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man, but to remain quiet.
  • NLT 12I do not let women teach men or have authority over them. Let them listen quietly.
  • NET 12But I do not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man. She must remain quiet.

[edit] Lexical studies

The meaning of the word was not seriously disputed until 1979, when Catherine Kroeger (then a university classics student), asserted the meaning was "to engage in fertility practices". Although the claim was rejected by the scholarly consensus, debate over the meaning of the word had been opened, and Christians affirming an egalitarian view of the role of women in the church continued to contest the meaning of the word authenteō.[37] Standard lexicons including authenteō are broadly in agreement with regard to its historical lexical range.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46]

A number of key studies of authenteō have been undertaken over the last 30 years, some of which have involved comprehensive searches of the largest available databases of Greek literature, Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, and the Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri. These databases enable researchers to study the word in context, as it is used in a wide range of documents over a long period of time.

  • Catherine Kroeger (1979)[11]
  • George Knight III (1984)[47]
  • Leland Wilshire (1988)[48]
  • Catherine & Richard Kroeger (1992)[49]
  • Andrew Perriman (1993)[50]
  • H Scott Baldwin (1995)[51]
  • Andreas Köstenberger (1995)[52]
  • Albert Wolters (2000)[53]
  • Linda Belleville (2004)[54]

Those who favor “traditional” understandings of male ecclesiastical leadership have tended to translate this word in the neutral sense of “have authority” or “exercise authority” as, for example, George Knight in his widely cited article of 1984. In 1988, Leland Wilshire, examining 329 occurrences of this word and its cognate authentēs, claimed that, prior to and contemporary with the 1st century, authentein often had negative overtones such as “domineer,” “perpetrate a crime” or even “murder”. Not until the later patristic period did the meaning “to exercise authority” come to predominate.

By 2000, Scott Baldwin's study of the word was considered the most extensive, demonstrating that the meaning in a given passage must be determined by context.[55] Linda Belleville's later study examined the five occurrences of "authentein" as a verb or noun prior to or contemporary with Paul and rendered these texts as follows: “commit acts of violence,”[56] “the author of a message,"[57] a letter of Tryphon (1st century BC), which Belleville rendered “I had my way with him”, the poet Dorotheus (1st and 2nd centuries AD) in an astrological text, rendered by Bellville “Saturn...dominates Mercury.” Belleville maintains that it is clear in these that a neutral meaning such as “have authority” is not in view. Her study has been criticized for treating the infinitive "authentein" as a noun, which is considered a major weakness in her argument.[58]

Lexical studies have been particularly focused on two early papyri; Papyrus BGU 1208 (c.27 BC), using the verb authenteō and speaking of Trypho exercising his authority, and Papyrus Tebtunis 15 (c.100 AD), using the noun form and speaking of bookkeepers having authority over their accounts. These two papyri are significant not only because they are closest in time to Paul's own usage of authenteō, but because they both use their respective words with a sense which is generally held to be in agreement with the studies by Baldwin and Wolters, though some egalitarians (such as Linda Belleville), dispute the interpretation of "authenteō" in Papyrus BGU 1208.[54]

[edit] Syntactical study

The lexical data was later supplemented by a large scale contextual syntax study of the passage by Andreas Köstenbereger in 1995,[52] which argued that the syntactical construction ouk didaskein oude authentein ("not teach nor have/exercise authority"), requires that both didaskein and authentein have a positive sense. Köstenbereger examined fifty-two examples of the same ouk... oude ("not... nor"), construction in the New Testament, as well as forty eight extra-biblical examples covering the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. Köstenbereger concluded that teaching has a positive meaning in such passages as 1 Timothy 4:11; 6:2, and 2 Timothy 2:2. The force of the ouk... oude construction would therefore mean that authenteo likewise has a positive meaning, and does not refer to domineering but the positive exercise of authority.

Reception of Köstenbereger's study by the scholarly community was overwhelmingly positive. The majority of both complementarian and egalitarian scholars agreed with Köstenbereger, many considering that he has determined conclusively the contextual meaning of authenteo in 1 Timothy 2:12. Peter O"Brien, in a review published in Australia, concurred with the findings of this study, as did Helge Stadelmann in an extensive review that appeared in the German "Jahrbuch für evangelikale Theologie." Both reviewers accepted the results of the present study as valid.[59] Another egalitarian, Craig Keener, in a review that appeared in the Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, says that while in his view the principle is not clear in all instances cited in the present study, “the pattern seems to hold in general, and this is what matters most.” Keener concurs that the contention of the present essay is “probably correct that "have authority" should be read as coordinate with "teach" rather than as subordinate ("teach in a domineering way).”[59]:p47 Köstenberger notes a range of egalitarians agreeing with his syntactical analysis. Kevin Giles "finds himself in essential agreement with the present syntactical analysis of 1 Tim 2:12",[59]:pp.48-49 Craig Blomberg is quoted as saying "Decisively supporting the more positive sense of assuming appropriate authority is Andreas Köstenberger's study".[59]:p.49 Esther Ng "continues, “However, since a negative connotation of didaskein is unlikely in this verse (see below), the neutral meaning for authentein (to have authority over) seems to fit the oude construction better.”",[60] and Judith Hartenstein notes that "Köstenberger shows through a syntactical study that 1 Tim 2:12 forbids women to teach and to have authority over men, not only to abuse authority".[60]

A challenge to Köstenberger's conclusions by Philip Payne has not found wide acceptance.[61]

[edit] Secular scholarship and attitudes

A number of egalitarians are concerned that the complementarian interpretation of the text brings Christianity into disrepute with generally egalitarian secular society and express concern that this may inhibit Christian preaching, promoting the egalitarian interpretation as the solution.[62] Egalitarian NT Wright describes the passage as the 'sheet-anchor for those who want to deny women a place in the ordained ministry of the church, with full responsibilities for preaching, presiding at the Eucharist, and exercising leadership within congregations and indeed dioceses."[8]

Secular scholarship however is typically dismissive of egalitarian arguments on textual, hermeneutical, and historical grounds, agreeing with the complementarian interpretation of the text.[63][64][65][66]

[edit] Endnotes

  1. ^ Phillips, Rick. "On Women's Ordination: A Response to Dr. John Jefferson Davis on 1 Timothy 2:12." 30 Oct 2009. Web:
  2. ^ Kroeger, Richard C. and Catherine C. "I Suffer Not a Woman." Baker Book House, 1992. ISBN 0-8010-5250-5
  3. ^ Keener, Craig. "Paul, Women, and Wives." Hendrickson, 1992, p.101. ISBN 978-0-943575-96-4
  4. ^ a b c d Bilezikian, Gilbert. "Beyond Sex Roles," Baker, 2nd ed., 1989. ISBN 0-8010-0885-9.
  5. ^ Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University Press, USA. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530013-0
  6. ^ Borg, Marcus J. and John Dominic Crossan. The First Paul. HarperOne. 2009. ISBN 9780061803406
  7. ^ "Any interpretation of these portions of Scripture must wrestle with the theological, contextual, syntactical, and lexical difficulties embedded within these few words.", Moore, Terri D. "Chapter Six: Conclusions on 1 Timothy 2:15." bible.org Oct. 30, 2009:
  8. ^ a b Wright, N.T. "The Biblical Basis for Women's Service in the Church." Web: <www2.cbeinternational.org/CBE_InfoPack/pdf/wright_biblical_basis.pdf Biblical Basis for Women's Service> 16 Dec. 2009
  9. ^ a b Kroeger, Richard and Catherine Kroeger. "I Suffer Not a Woman. Rethinking 1 Timothy 2:11–15 in Light of Ancient Evidence." Baker, 1992. ISBN 978-0-8010-5250-7
  10. ^ Schreiner "Interpreting the Pauline Epistles", Southern Baptist Journal of Theology (3.3.10), (Fall 1999)
  11. ^ a b c Lutheran Church Missouri Synod Commission on Theology and Church Relations, "AUTHENTEIN: A Summary", pp. 3-4 (2005)
  12. ^ Köstenberger, "Women in the Church: An Analysis and Application of 1 Timothy 2:9-15" (1995).
  13. ^ Hugenberger, "Women In Church Office: Hermeneutics Or Exegesis? A Survey Of Approaches To 1 Tim 2:8-15", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (35.3.349), (September 1992)
  14. ^ Schreiner, "Paul, Apostle of God's Glory in Christ", p. 408 (2006)
  15. ^ "The Kroegers' thesis about the Pastorals also requires a large and syncretistic Jewish presence in Ephesus. Erroneous information is set forth to buttress this view. The assertion, for example, that "archaeological evidence attests not only the presence of a large settlement of Jews at Ephesus but also to extensive Jewish involvement in magic" (p. 55) is patently false.", Oster, review of "I Suffer Not a Woman. Rethinking 1 Timothy 2:11-15 in Light of Ancient Evidence" by Richard Clark Kroeger and Catherine Clark Kroeger, in Biblical Archaeologist (56:4.226), Nomadic Pastoralism: Past and Present (December, 1993)
  16. ^ "Lamentably, their use of this work is characterized by misunderstanding and a serious inflation of the evidence.", Oster, review of "I Suffer Not a Woman. Rethinking 1 Timothy 2:11-15 in Light of Ancient Evidence" by Richard Clark Kroeger and Catherine Clark Kroeger, in Biblical Archaeologist (56:4.225-226), Nomadic Pastoralism: Past and Present (December, 1993)
  17. ^ "The most serious issue of methodology in I Suffer Not a Woman is the authors" frequent neglect of primary sources of Ephesian archaeology and history. It is perplexing that the Kroegers' views about Ephesus, about Artemis, and about the role of women in the city's life are so uninformed by the appropriate corpora of inscriptions, coins, and scholarly literature about the city's excavations. Even when the authors do employ primary sources, their methodology is often uncritical. The Kroegers often string sources together even when these are separated by centuries and perhaps hundreds of miles. On occasion ancient literature is cited with little regard for the propensities of the author or the context in which the statements were made. Proof-texting of pagan authors should be just as unacceptable as proof-texting of the Scriptures.", Oster, review of "I Suffer Not a Woman. Rethinking 1 Timothy 2:11-15 in Light of Ancient Evidence" by Richard Clark Kroeger and Catherine Clark Kroeger, in Biblical Archaeologist (56:4.226), Nomadic Pastoralism: Past and Present (December, 1993)
  18. ^ "It is precarious, as Edwin Yamauchi and others have shown, to assume gnostic backgrounds for New Testament books. Although the phrase, "falsely called knowledge," in 1 Timothy 6:20 contains the Greek word gnosis, this was the common word for knowledge. It does seem anachronistic to transliterate and capitalize it "Gnosis" as Kroeger does.", Liefeld, "1 Timothy 2:12 - A Classicist's View", in Mickelsen, "Women, Authority & The Bible" p. 246 (1986)
  19. ^ "Kroeger and Kroeger thus explain v. 13 as an answer to the false notion that the woman is the originator of man, with the Artemis cult in Ephesus, that had somehow crept into the church, possibly by way of the false teaching. However, this explanation cannot be substantiated (except from later Gnostic writings).", Marshall & Towner, "A Critical And Exegetical Commentary On the Pastoral Epistles", International Critical Commentary, p. 463 (1999)
  20. ^ 'scholer's particular comment is also generally the case, that there is "no clear or particular evidence that connects this heresy [of 1 Timothy] with any pagan worship in Ephesus and its sexual activities and connotations" (1984:199 n 19).", Strelan, "Paul, Artemis, and the Jews in Ephesus", p. 155 (1996)
  21. ^ "Kroeger and Kroeger stand alone in their interpretation.", Brown, in Meyers, Craven & Kraemer, "Women In Scripture: A Dictionary of Named and Unnamed women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, and the New Testament", pp. 488-489 (2001)
  22. ^ "The full-fledged Gnosticism of later church history did not exist in the first century A.D.21 An incipient form of Gnosticism was present, but Schmithals makes the error of reading later Gnosticism into the first century documents. Richard and Catherine Kroeger follow in Schmithals's footsteps in positing the background to 1 Timothy.22 They call the heresy “proto- Gnostic,” but in fact they often appeal to later sources to define the false teaching.23 External evidence can only be admitted if it can be shown that the religious or philosophical movement was contemporary with the New Testament.", Schreiner "Interpreting the Pauline Epistles", Southern Baptist Journal of Theology (3.3.10), (Fall 1999)
  23. ^ "As a classicist, however, her [Catherine Kroeger] own contributions are reconstruction of a background and choices from linguistic options viewed as appropriate to that background. Both have been discredited.", Holmes, "Text In A Whirlwind", p. 26 (2000)
  24. ^ "It is no wonder that L. E. Wilshire, even though he shares the egalitarian outlook, says: “This is a breathtaking extension into (pre-) Gnostic content yet an interpretation I do not find supported either by the totality of their own extensive philological study, by the NT context, or by the immediate usages of the word authenteo and its variants.”", Baugh, "The Apostle among the Amazons", Westminster Theological Journal (56.157), (Spring 1994)
  25. ^ "Recently Kroeger and Kroeger have done significant research into the nature and background of ancient Ephesus and have suggested an alternative interpretation to 1 Tim 2:11-15. While they have provided significant background data, their suggestion that the phrase "to have authority" (authentein, authentein) should be rendered "to represent herself as originator of man" is, to say the least, far-fetched and has gained little support.", Moss, "NIV Commentary: 1, 2 Timothy & Titus", p. 60 (1994)
  26. ^ "On the basis of outdated lexicography, uncited and no longer extant classical texts, a discredited background (see my Introduction n. 25), and the introduction of an ellipsis into a clause which is itself complete, the Kroegers rewrite v. 12.", Holmes, "Text in a Whirlwind", p. 89 (2000)
  27. ^ "In addition Spencer notes that rather than using the imperative mood or even an aorist or future indicative to express that prohibition, Paul quite significantly utilizes a present indicative, perhaps best rendered “But I am not presently allowing.”29 This temporary prohibition, then, is based solely on the regrettable similarity between the Ephesian women and Eve in that the women of Ephesus had been deceived and as such if allowed to teach would be in danger of promoting false doctrine.", Hugenberger, "Women In Church Office: Hermeneutics Or Exegesis? A Survey Of Approaches To 1 Tim 2:8-15", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (35.3.349), (September 1992)
  28. ^ "As attractive as this interpretation appears, serious objections have been raised against it in recent years. First of all, some caution may need to be exercised against an overly simplistic picture of the Jewish or Greek cultural background at times assumed for our passage.32 For example, Eunice and Lois (2 Tim 1:5; 3:15) appear to have known the Scriptures better than might be inferred from the Jewish practice adduced by Spencer, although Spencer acknowledges the possibility that women could learn privately.", Hugenberger, "Women In Church Office: Hermeneutics Or Exegesis? A Survey Of Approaches To 1 Tim 2:8-15", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (35.3.349), (September 1992)
  29. ^ "First, defenders of the traditional view have argued that Paul's blanket statement, “I do not permit a woman to teach,” sounds universal. If what he really meant was “I do not permit a woman to teach error,” and that he would have no objection to women teaching once they got their doctrine straight, why did he not say that? Kroeger received criticism even from a fellow egalitarian for failing to deal with this point.", Barron, "Putting Women In Their Place: 1 Timothy 2 And Evangelical Views Of Women In Church Leadership ", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (33.4.455), (December 1990)
  30. ^ "Despite protests to the contrary, the "rule" itself is expressed absolutely. That is, it is given without any form of qualification. Given the unqualified nature of the further prohibition that "the women"29 are not permitted to speak, it is very difficult to interpret this as meaning anything else than all forms of speaking out in public.", Fee, "The First Epistle to the Corinthians", p. 706 (1987)
  31. ^ "However, in the only passage in the Pastoral Epistles that combines a clear reference both to heretical teachings and to women, women are not the promulgators but the victims of false teaching (2 Tim 3:6-7). The question still remains, therefore, why Paul does not leave matters with the general prohibition against false teaching in 1 Timothy 1:3-4, but adds a paragraph directed specifically against women teachers. He thus restricts the recipients, rather than the originators, of the false doctrine. Of course, since the women—whether because of poor education, pagan influence or whatever— were being easily deceived in that culture, that fact connects with the reference in 2:14 to the deceiving of Eve. But that relates to the problem of women being deceived rather than to the problem of heresy itself.", Liefeld, "Response to David M. Scholer", in Mickelsen, "Women, authority & the Bible", p. 220 (1986)
  32. ^ "Not all women of Paul's day were intellectually impoverished or hopelessly contaminated by pagan practices, yet Paul seems to prohibit all women from teaching in Ephesus. The egalitarians seem forced into the implausible claim that no woman in the Ephesian church was sufficiently orthodox and educated to teach.", Barron, "Putting Women In Their Place: 1 Timothy 2 And Evangelical Views Of Women In Church Leadership", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (33.4.455-456), (December 1990)
  33. ^ "If authentic, this unqualified use of the verb seems to tell against the probability that only a single form of speech is prohibited. Elsewhere Paul has said 'speak in tongues" when that is in view, and when he means "discern" he says "discern," not 'speak". Again, as with the opening "rule," the plain sense of the sentence is an absolute prohibition of all speaking in the assembly.", Fee, "The First Epistle to the Corinthians", pp. 706-707 (1987)
  34. ^ "However, in the only passage in the Pastoral Epistles that combines a clear reference both to heretical teachings and to women, women are not the promulgators but the victims of false teaching (2 Tim 3:6-7). The question still remains, therefore, why Paul does not leave matters with the general prohibition against false teaching in 1 Timothy 1:3-4, but adds a paragraph directed specifically against women teachers.", Liefeld, "Response to David M. Scholer", in Mickelsen, "Women, authority & the Bible", p. 220 (1986)
  35. ^ "It is not hard to imagine Paul writing, "I do not permit a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man... because women are uneducated." Nor would it be difficult for Paul to say that women cannot teach "because they are spreading false teaching." Nothing close to either of these two points is communicated.", Schreiner, "Paul, Apostle of God's Glory in Christ", p. 408 (2006)
  36. ^ Liefeld, "Women And The Nature Of Ministry", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (30:51), (1987)
  37. ^ "During the past two decades at least 15 studies examining in some detail the lexical data have appeared, mainly among evangelical scholars holding opposing positions on the role of women in the church (commonly referred to as a debate of complementarians vs egalitarians)", Lutheran Church Missouri Synod, Commission on Theology and Church Relations "AUTHENTEIN: A Summary", p. 3 (2005)
  38. ^ Friberg, Friberg, & Miller "Analytical lexicon of the Greek New Testament", volume 4, p. 81 (2000)
  39. ^ Arndt, Danker, & Bauer, "A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature", p. 150 (3rd ed., 2000)
  40. ^ Balz & Schneider, "Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament. Translation of: Exegetisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testamen", volume 1, p. 178 (1990-c1993)
  41. ^ Lust, Eynikel, & Hauspie, "A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (electronic rev. ed. 2003)
  42. ^ Louw & Nida, "Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament: Based on semantic domains", volume 1, p. 473 (2nd ed. 1989)
  43. ^ Liddell, Scott, & Jones, "A Greek-English Lexicon" (rev. and augm. throughout, electronic ed., 9th ed. with supplement, 1996)
  44. ^ Newman, "Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament", p. 28 (1993)
  45. ^ Swanson, "Dictionary of Biblical Languages with Semantic Domains: Greek (New Testament)", DBLG 883 (2nd ed. 2001)
  46. ^ Zodhiates, "The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament", G831 (electronic ed., 2000)
  47. ^ House, A Biblical View of Women in the Ministry Part 3: "The Speaking of Women and the Prohibition of the Law", Bibliotheca Sacra (145.315), (1988)
  48. ^ House, A Biblical View of Women in the Ministry Part 3: "The Speaking of Women and the Prohibition of the Law", Bibliotheca Sacra (145.315), (1988)</
  49. ^ Moss, "NIV Commentary: 1, 2 Timothy & Titus", p. 60 (1994)
  50. ^ Perriman, "What Eve Did, What Women Shouldn"t Do: The Meaning of Authenteo in 1 Timothy 2:12," Tyndale Bulletin (44.1.137), (1993)
  51. ^ Köstenberger, Schreiner, and Baldwin, eds. (complementarians)," Women in the Church: A Fresh Analysis of 1 Timothy 2:9-15" (1995)
  52. ^ a b Köstenberger, "Women in the Church: An Analysis and Application of 1 Timothy 2:9-15" (1995)
  53. ^ Wolters, "A Semantic Study of and its Derivatives", Journal for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (11.1.54), (2006); originally published in Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism (1.145-175), (2000)
  54. ^ a b Köstenbereger, "“Teaching and Usurping Authority: I Timothy 2:11–15” (Ch 12) by Linda L. Belleville", Journal for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (10.1.44), 2005
  55. ^ "After extended debate,49 the most thorough lexical study is undoubtedly that of H. Scott Baldwin, who conclusively demonstrates that various shades of meaning are possible, and that only the context can determine which is intended.", Holmes, "Text in a whirlwind: A critique of four exegetical devices at 1 Timothy 2:9-15", pp. 86–87 (2000).
  56. ^ the Scholia (fifth to first century B.C.) to Aeschylus's tragedy Eumenides
  57. ^ Aristonicus (first century B.C.
  58. ^ "To respond to the specific criticisms lodged by Belleville one at a time, (1) her argument that infinitives are not verbs is hardly borne out by a look at the standard grammars. Wallace's extensive treatment is representative. Under the overall rubric of “verb,” he treats infinitives as verbal nouns that exemplify some of the characteristics of the verb and some of the noun.13 Hence Belleville's proposal that infinitives are nouns, not verbs, is unduly dichotomistic and fails to do justice to the verbal characteristics commonly understood to reside in infinitives.", Köstenbereger, "“Teaching and Usurping Authority: I Timothy 2:11–15” (Ch 12) by Linda L. Belleville", Journal for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (10.1.43), 2005
  59. ^ a b c d Belleville, Linda L. “Teaching and Usurping Authority: I Timothy 2:11-15” (Ch 12), Journal for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (10.1.47), (1995)
  60. ^ a b Belleville, Linda L. “Teaching and Usurping Authority: I Timothy 2:11-15” (Ch 12), Journal for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (10.1.49), (1995)
  61. ^ "Even granted Pauline authorship and not only the close relationship in each pair in his study but also at 1 Tim. 2.12, Payne here fails to convince. Not only are some of his lexical examples tenuous, 54 but Köstenberger now demonstrates from a wider database that "oude" does not subordinate one action to another. 55" Holmes, "Text in a Whirlwind", p. 87 (2000)
  62. ^ "However, there is another apologetic mission that egalitarians are in a unique and opportune position to fulfill. This involves presenting the message of biblical equality to the unbelieving world in a persuasive manner, thus winning to Christ people who might never be touched by traditionalist approaches.", Groothius, "Apologetics: The Egalitarian Imperative", (2002)
  63. ^ "Rather than striving to show that women played a more prominent part than our evidence suggests, or that the prohibitions of the Pastorals do not mean what they appear to say, it would be more honest to admit the facts and then, if so minded, set them aside. Again, rather than using the New Testament to establish a primitive, egalitarian innocence for the church, while discarding much of the New Testament in the process, those for whom the New Testament documents speak with authority would do better to take them as a whole and ask what we learn from the disciples of the apostles and the fact that they in their generation closed the door to women in leadership after Jesus and Paul had seemed to open it.", Campbell, "The elders: Seniority within earliest Christianity", p. 275 (2004)
  64. ^ "On the contrary, I am suspicious of feminist or non-feminist scholars who attempt to create, in the words of one feminist theologian, “a discipleship of equals”1 originating from modern theological arguments that have little to do with the historical problems present in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament.", Ksarjian, "Trying to Prove that the Bible Is Pro-Woman: How some feminists perpetuate patriarchy", Free Inquiry Magazine, (19.1.1999)
  65. ^ "To do so is not totally new: a range of recent studies has shown that such wishful thinking about Jesus" or Paul's "liberalism" is deeply flawed, resting on a naive use of the early Christian sources, particularly regarding Jesus, and on a, perhaps less naive, misuse of the Jewish sources, taking as descriptive of the first century, the prescriptive construction of a world by the second-century male scholarly elite we know as the rabbis.", Lieu, "Neither Jew nor Greek? constructing early Christianity", p. 83 (2002)
  66. ^ "For all those seeking historical information and plausible historical reconstruction in Schüssler Fiorenza's feminist-theological reconstruction of Christian origins, reading is a torment. With arbitrary exegesis she attempts to show that the early Christian movement opened up positions of leadership for women and therefore could be called egalitarian.", Lüdemann, "Primitive Christianity: A survey of recent studies and some new proposals", p. 87 (2003)

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