Acid attack: Difference between revisions
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Acid Attacks are claims by women to be violence against them, but are often unfounded. most cases are against men in hateful cases designed to deprive them of property or family by feminists by permanently disfiguring them. |
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[[File:Acid attack victim.jpg|Acid attack victim in [[Cambodia]]|thumb|300px]] |
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{{Violence against women}} |
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'''Acid throwing''', also called an '''acid attack''',<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8576279.stm | work=BBC News | title=Cambodian victim on her acid attack | date=2010-03-21 | accessdate=2010-04-23| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100325022243/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8576279.stm?| archivedate= 25 March 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> a '''vitriol attack''' or '''vitriolage''', is a form of [[Violence|violent]] [[assault]]<ref name=Karmakar>{{Cite book | author=Karmakar, R.N. | title=Forensic Medicine and Toxicology | year=2003 | publisher=Academic Publishers | isbn=81-87504-69-2 }}</ref> defined as the act of throwing [[acid]] or a similarly [[corrosive substance]] onto the body of another "with the intention to [[disfigurement|disfigure]], [[Mutilation|maim]], [[torture]], or kill."<ref name=11a>{{cite web|title=Breaking the Silence: Addressing Acid Attacks in Cambodia|publisher=Cambodian Acid Survivors Charity|accessdate=6 March 2013|url=http://www.cambodianacidsurvivorscharity.org/docs/breaking_the_silence.pdf|pages=1–51|date=May 2010}}</ref> Perpetrators of these attacks throw acid at their victims, usually at their faces, burning them, and damaging [[skin]] [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]], often exposing and sometimes dissolving the bones.<ref name=Swanson>{{Cite news |
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| last = Swanson |
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| first = Jordan |
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| year = 2002 |
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| title = Acid attacks: Bangladesh’s efforts to stop the violence. |
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| periodical = Harvard Health Policy Review |
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| pages = 1–4 |
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| number = 1 |
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| volume = 3 |
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| url = http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~epihc/currentissue/spring2002/swanson.php |
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| accessdate =2008-06-18 |
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| postscript = <!--None--> |
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}}</ref> The most common types of acid used in these attacks are sulfuric and nitric acid. Hydrochloric acid is sometimes used, but is much less damaging.<ref name=13a>{{cite web|last=Welsh|first=Jane|title="It was like a burning hell": A Comparative Exploration of Acid Attack Violence|url=http://cgi.unc.edu/uploads/media_items/it-was-like-burning-in-hell-a-comparative-exploration-of-acid-attack-violence.original.pdf|publisher=[[Center for Global Initiatives]]|accessdate=31 March 2013|year=2009}}</ref> The long term consequences of these attacks may include [[blindness]], as well as permanent [[scarring]] of the face and body,<ref name=Bandyopadhyay_Khan/><ref name=CNN>{{cite news | title = CNN.com - Bangladesh combats an acid onslaught against women - November 11, 2000| url =http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ASIANOW/south/11/11/bangladesh.acid.ap/index.html| accessdate =2008-03-13 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070922210725/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ASIANOW/south/11/11/bangladesh.acid.ap/index.html |archivedate = September 22, 2007}}</ref><ref name=Bahl_Syed>{{Cite book | author=Bahl, Taru & M.H. Syed | title=Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World | year=2004 | publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD | isbn=978-81-261-1419-1 }}</ref> along with far-reaching social, psychological, and economic difficulties.<ref name=11a /> |
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Today, acid attacks are reported in many parts of the world. Since 1990s, [[Bangladesh]] has been reporting the highest number of attacks and highest incidence rates per 100,000 women,<ref>Taylor, L. M. (2000). Saving Face: Acid Attack Laws After the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Ga. Journal Int'l & Comp. Law, 29, pp 395-419</ref><ref name=3a/> with 3,512 Bangladeshi people acid attacked between 1999 and 2013.<ref>[http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/CSW/59/National_reviews/Bangladesh_annexes_Beijing20.pdf Acid Attack Trend (1999-2013)] UN Women, United Nations (2014)</ref> |
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{{TOC limit|3}} |
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==Health effects== |
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The most notable effects of an acid attack is the lifelong bodily disfigurement. According to the [[Acid Survivors Foundation]] in [[Pakistan]], there is a high survival rate amongst victims of acid attacks. Consequently the victim is faced with physical challenges, which require long term surgical treatment, as well as psychological challenges, which require in-depth intervention from [[psychologist]]s and counselors at each stage of physical recovery.<ref name=ASF>{{cite web|last=Khan|first=Adnan|title=The real miracle workers fighting, and healing, Pakistan’s acid attacks|url=http://acidsurvivorspakistan.org/|publisher=Acid Survivors Foundation, Pakistan|date=Apr 21, 2012|accessdate=24 May 2012}}</ref> These far-reaching effects on their lives impact their [[psychological]], [[social]] and [[economic]] viability in communities.<ref name=11a /> |
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===Medical=== |
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'''First aid:'''<ref name=":14">{{cite web|publisher=Acid Survivors Trust International|title=First Aid Information|url=http://www.acidviolence.org/index.php/acid-violence/first-aid-information|accessdate=2013-09-21}}</ref> |
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The [[medical]] effects of acid attacks are extensive. As a majority of acid attacks are aimed at the face,<ref name="3a" /> several articles thoroughly reviewed the medical implications for these victims. Severity of the damage depends on the [[concentration]] of the [[acid]] and the period of time before the acid is thoroughly washed off with [[water]] or [[Neutralization (chemistry)|neutralized]] with a neutralizing agent. The acid can rapidly eat away [[skin]], the layer of fat beneath the skin, and in some cases even the underlying [[bone]]. [[Eyelids]] and [[lips]] may be completely destroyed, the [[nose]] and [[ears]] severely damaged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cequinindia.org/pdf/Special_Reports/Acid%20Throwing.pdf|title=GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN PUBLIC PLACES: ACID THROWING|author=Keerthi Bollineni|publisher=[[Centre for Equality and Inclusion]]}}</ref> Though not exhaustive, their findings included:<ref name="10a" /> |
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*The [[skull]] is partly destroyed/deformed and hair lost. |
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*[[Ear]] cartilage is usually partly or totally destroyed; [[deafness]] may occur. |
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*[[Eyelids]] may be burned off or deformed, leaving the [[eye]]s extremely dry and prone to [[blindness]]. Acid directly in the eye also damages [[eyesight|sight]], sometimes causing blindness in both eyes. |
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*[[Nose]] can become shrunken and deformed; the [[nostril]]s may close off completely due to destroyed [[cartilage]]. |
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*The [[mouth]] becomes shrunken and narrow, and it may lose its full range of motion. Sometimes, the [[lip]]s may be partly or totally destroyed, exposing the [[teeth]]. Eating and speaking can become difficult. |
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*[[Scar]]s can run down from the [[chin]] to [[neck]] area, shrinking the chin and extremely limiting [[range of motion]] in the neck. |
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*[[Inhalation]] of acid vapors usually creates [[respiratory]] problems, exacerbated restricted [[airway]] pathways (the [[esophagus]] and [[nostril]]s) in acid patients. |
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In addition to these above-mentioned medical effects, acid attack victims also face the possibility of [[septicemia]], [[renal failure]], skin [[depigmentation]], and even [[death]].<ref name=5a /> |
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===Psychological=== |
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Acid assault survivors also face many [[mental health]] issues upon recovery. One study showed that when compared to published Western [[norm (social)|norms]] for psychological well-being, non-Caucasian acid attack victims reported higher levels of [[anxiety]], [[depression (mood)|depression]], and scored higher on the Derriford appearance scale, which measures [[psychological distress]] due to one's concern for their appearance. Additionally, the women reported lowered [[self-esteem]] according to the [[Rosenberg self-esteem scale|Rosenberg scale]] and increased [[self-consciousness]], both in general and in the social sphere.<ref name=6a /> |
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In some countries such as Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Kuwait, acid attack victims are psychologically persecuted after the acid attack. The media overwhelmingly avoids reporting acid attack related violence; if covered, the description of the attack is minimized, blames the victims, omits women's voices, and treats sympathetically men who commit these crimes.<ref>Sarah Halim andMarian Meyers (2010), ''News Coverage of Violence Against Muslim Women: A View From the Arabian Gulf'', Communication, Culture & Critique. Volume 3, Issue 1, pages 85–104, March 2010</ref> |
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===Social=== |
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In addition to [[medical]] and [[psychological]] effects, many [[social]] implications exist for acid survivors, especially women. For example, such attacks usually leave victims [[handicapped]] in some way, rendering them dependent on either their spouse or family for everyday activities, such as eating and running errands. These dependencies are increased by the fact that many acid survivors are not able to find suitable [[employment|work]], due to impaired [[visual perception|vision]] and [[Physical disability|physical handicap]]. This negatively impacts their [[economic]] viability, causing hardships on the families/spouses that care for them. As a result, [[divorce]] rates are high, with abandonment by husbands found in 25% acid assault cases in [[Uganda]] (compared to only 3% of wives abandoning their disfigured husbands).<ref name=10a /> Moreover, acid survivors who are single when attacked almost certainly become [[social rejection|ostracized]] from society, effectively ruining [[marriage]] prospects.<ref name=2a /> |
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==Prevention== |
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Research has prompted many solutions to the increasing incidence of acid attacks in the world. Many countries look to Bangladesh, whose rates of attack have been decreasing, as a model, following their lead in many legislative reforms.<ref name=12a /> However, several reports highlighted the need for an increased, legal role of NGOs to offer rehabilitation support to acid survivors.<ref name=11a /> Additionally, nearly all research stressed the need for stricter [[regulation]] of acid sales in order to combat this social issue.<ref name=11a /><ref name=10a /><ref name=12a /> |
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===Role of NGOs=== |
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Many [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs) have been formed in the areas with the highest occurrence of acid attacks to combat such attacks. Bangladesh has its [[Acid Survivors Foundation]], which offers acid victims [[legal]], [[medical]], [[rehabilitation counseling|counseling]], and monetary assistance in rebuilding their lives.<ref name=12a /> Similar institutions exist in Uganda, which has its own Acid Survivors Foundation,<ref name=10a /> and in Cambodia which utilizes the help of [[Cambodian Acid Survivors Charity]].<ref name=11a /> NGOs provide rehabilitation services for survivors while acting as advocates for [[social reform]], hoping to increase support and awareness for acid assault. |
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In Bangladesh, the [[Acid Survivors Foundation]], Nairpokkho, [[Action Aid]], and the [[Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee]]'s Community Empowerment & Strengthening Local Institutions Programme assist survivors in Bangladesh.<ref name=Anwary>Anwar, Afroza, 'Acid Violence and Medical Care in Bangladesh: Women's Activism as Carework' in Mary K. Zimmerman, Jacquelyn S. Litt and Christine E. Bose (eds) ''Global Dimensions of Gender and Carework'' (Stanford University Press, 2006), ISBN 978-0-8047-5324-1</ref> The Acid Survivors Foundation in Pakistan operates in [[Islamabad]], offering medical, psychological and rehabilitation support.<ref>[http://www.asti.org.uk/index.php/news/brutal-disfigurement-of-survivors-attacked-by-acid-the-acid-survivors-found/Brutal Disfigurement of Survivors, the Acid Survivors Foundation Pakistan | News | Acid Survivors Trust International<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Acid Survivors Foundation in [[Uganda]] operates in [[Kampala]] and also provides counseling and rehabilitation treatment to victims of acid attacks, as well as their families if need be.<ref name=":25">[http://www.france24.com/en/20080730-uganda-kampala-society-acid-attack Victims of acid attacks - FRANCE 24<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Additionally in Cambodia, [[Cambodian League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights (LICADHO)|LICADHO]], the Association of the Blind in Cambodia and the [[Cambodian Acid Survivors Charity]] all assist survivors of acid attacks. The Acid Survivors Foundation India operates from different centres with national headquarters at Kolkata and chapters at Delhi and Mumbai. |
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[[Acid Survivors Trust International]] (UK registered charity no. 1079290) provides specialist support to its sister organizations in Africa and Asia.<ref name=":25">[http://www.depilexsmileagain.com/zakat.htm Depilex Smileagain Foundation]</ref><ref name=":25">[http://www.asti.org.uk ASTI]</ref> Acid Survivors Trust International is the only international organisation whose sole purpose is to end acid violence. The organisation was founded in 2002 and now works with a network of six Acid Survivors Foundations in Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Uganda that it has helped to form. Acid Survivors Trust International has helped to provide medical expertise and training to partners, raised valuable funds to support survivors of acid attacks and helped change laws. A key role for ASTI is to raise awareness of acid violence to an international audience so that increased pressure can be applied to governments to introduce stricter controls on the sale and purchase of acid.<ref name=":26>[http://www.acidviolence.org/index.php/acid-violence/ ACID SURVIVORS TRUST INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE] </ref> |
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Indian acid attack survivor Shirin Juwaley founded the Palash Foundation<ref name=":25">{{cite web|url=http://www.palashfoundation.org/index.html |title=Home |publisher=Palash Foundation |date= |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref> to help other survivors with psycho-social rehabilitation. She also spearheads research into social norms of beauty and speaks publicly as an advocate for the empowerment of all victims of disfigurement and discrimination.<ref name=":25">{{cite news|last=Fernandes|first=Joeanna|title=In the eyes of the beholder|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/In-the-eyes-of-the-beholder/articleshow/10458336.cms?intenttarget=no|publisher=The Times of India|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref> In 2011, the principal of an Indian college refused to have Juwaley speak at her school for fear that Juwaley's story of being attacked by her husband would make students "become scared of marriage".<ref name="South Asia Wired">{{Cite news |
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| last = Sujan |
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| first = Dheera |
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| date = August 2011 |
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| title = An open letter about beauty and ugliness. |
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| periodical = South Asia Wired |
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| issue = August 30, 2011 |
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| url = http://blogs.rnw.nl/southasiawired/2011/08/30/an-open-letter-about-beauty-and-ugliness/ |
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| accessdate = 2011-09-01 |
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| postscript = <!--None--> |
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}}</ref> |
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===Regulation of acid sales=== |
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A positive correlation has been observed between acid attacks and ease of acid purchase.<ref name=12a /> [[sulfuric acid|Sulfuric]], [[nitric acid|nitric]], and [[hydrochloric acid]] are most commonly used and are all cheap and readily available in many instances. For example, often acid throwers can purchase a liter of concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] at motorbike mechanic shops for about 40 cents. [[Nitric acid]] costs around $1.50 per liter and is available for purchase at gold or jewelry shops, as polishers generally use it to purify gold and metals. [[Hydrochloric acid]] is also used for polishing jewelry, as well as for making [[soy sauce]], [[cosmetics]], and traditional medicine/[[substituted amphetamine|amphetamine]] drugs.<ref name=13a /> |
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Due to such ease of access, many organizations call for a stricter regulation on the [[acid]] economy. Specific actions include required [[license]]s for all acid traders, a ban on concentrated acid in certain areas, and enhanced system of monitoring for acid sales, such as the need to document all transactions involving acid.<ref name=11a /> However, some scholars have warned that such stringent regulation may result in [[black market]] trading of acid, which law enforcements must keep in mind.<ref name=11a /> |
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==Treatment== |
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'''First aid '''information for acid attacks is given on the Acid Survivors Trust International (ASTI) website:<ref name=":14" /> also in " External Links" section below. First level treatment typically includes flushing with water and where possible the application of a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water.<ref name=":14" /> |
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Treatment for [[burn]] victims remains inadequate in many [[developing nation]]s where incidence is high. Medical underfunding has resulted in very few [[burn center]]s available for victims in countries such as Uganda,<ref name="10a" /> Bangladesh,<ref name="7a">{{cite journal|last=Faga|first=A.|author2=D. Scevolab|author3=M.G. Mezzettic|author4=S. Scevolaa|title=Sulphuric acid burned women in Bangladesh: A social and medical problem|journal=Burns|volume=26|issue=8|pages=701–709|doi=10.1016/S0305-4179(00)00049-8|date=20 January 2000}}</ref> and Cambodia.<ref name="11a" /> For example, Uganda has one specialized [[burn center]] in the entire nation which opened in 2003,<ref name="10a" /> likewise Cambodia has only one burn facility for victims,<ref name="11a" /> and scholars estimate that only 30% of the Bangladeshi community has access to [[health care]].<ref name="7a" /> |
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In addition to inadequate medical capabilities, many acid assault victims fail to report to the [[police]] due to a lack of trust in the force, a sense of hopelessness due to the attackers' [[impunity]], and a fear of male brutality in dealing with their cases.<ref name=2a /> Most of the female victims suffer more because of [[police]] apathy in dealing with cases of harassment as safety issues as they{{who?|date=December 2013}} refused to register a police case despite the victim being attacked thrice before meriting police aid after an acid attack.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2854918.ece A case of police apathy?], The Hindu, February 3, 2012</ref> These problems are exacerbated by a lack of knowledge of how to treat burns: many victims applied various types of [[oil]] to the acid, rather than rinsing thoroughly and completely with water to [[Neutralization (chemistry)|neutralize]] the acid. Such [[home remedy|home remedies]] only serve to increase the severity of damage, as they do not counteract the acidity.<ref name=5a /> |
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==Epidemiology== |
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According to researchers and activists, countries typically associated with acid assault include [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[China]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Kenya]], [[South Africa]], [[Uganda]], [[Pakistan]], [[Yemen]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Ethiopia]]. However, acid attacks have been reported in many other countries around the world, including in:<ref name=13a /> |
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{{div col|cols=4}} |
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* [[Australia]] |
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* [[Belgium]] |
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* [[Bulgaria]] |
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* [[Canada]] |
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* [[Egypt]] |
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* [[France]] |
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* [[Gabon]] |
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* [[Indonesia]] |
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* [[Italy]] |
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* [[Jamaica]] |
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* [[Malaysia]] |
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* [[Myanmar]] |
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* [[Nigeria]] |
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* [[Saudi Arabia]] |
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* [[Sri Lanka]] |
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* [[Taiwan]] |
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* [[Thailand]] |
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* [[Turkey]] |
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* [[United States]] |
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* [[Colombia]] |
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{{div col end}} |
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Additionally, anecdotal evidence for acid attacks exists in various other regions of the world such as [[South America]], [[Central Africa|Central]] and [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Central Asia]].<ref name=13a /> However, despite such widespread occurrence [[South Asia]]n countries maintain the highest incidence of acid attacks in the world.<ref name=12a /> |
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===Gender=== |
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60 percent of acid attacks are on women, according to the London-based charity Acid Survivors Trust International, and acid assaults are grossly under-estimated. Experts{{who|date=August 2014}} say the attacks are often driven by the mentality “If I can't have you, no one shall.”<ref> India's top court says gov’t not trying to stop acid attacks. Source: Thomson Reuters Foundation - Tue, 9 Jul 2013 Author: Nita Bhalla http://www.trust.org/item/20130709160626-j5dfo/?source=dpagehead </ref>“ A 2007 literature review analyzed 24 studies in 13 countries over the past 40 years, covering 771 cases.<ref name=3a/> In the cases studied, men were more frequently victims in every country, with the exception of Bangladesh and Taiwan, with a male/female ratio ranging from 0.15:1 in Bangladesh to 6.14:1 in the UK. |
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Another factor that puts victims at increased risk for an acid assault is their [[socioeconomic status]], as those living in [[poverty]] are more likely to be attacked.<ref name=2a /><ref name=12a /> {{as of|2013}}, the three nations with the most noted incidence of acid attacks - Bangladesh, India, and Cambodia - were ranked 75th, 101st, and 104th, respectively, out of 136 countries on the [[Global Gender Gap]] Index, a scale that measures equality in opportunities between men and women in nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2013.pdf|title=The Global Gender Gap report|year=2013}}</ref> |
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===South Asia=== |
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In South Asia, acid attacks have been used as a form of revenge for refusal of sexual advances, proposals of [[marriage]] and demands for [[dowry]].<ref name=Bandyopadhyay_Khan>Bandyopadhyay, Mridula and Mahmuda Rahman Khan, 'Loss of face: violence against women in South Asia' in Lenore Manderson, Linda Rae Bennett (eds) ''Violence Against Women in Asian Societies'' (Routledge, 2003), ISBN 978-0-7007-1741-5</ref> Scholars Taru Bahl and M.H. Syed say that [[territorial dispute|land disputes]] are another leading cause.<ref name=Bahl_Syed/> |
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====Bangladesh==== |
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[[File:Supporting acid attack survivors in Bangladesh (6395599437).jpg|thumb|250px|Acid attack victims in Bangladesh.]] |
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In [[Bangladesh]], where such attacks are relatively common, they are mostly a form of [[domestic violence]].<ref name=Scholte>{{cite news | last =Scholte| first =Marianne| title =Acid Attacks in Bangladesh: A Voice for the Victims| publisher = [[Spiegel Online]]| date = 2006-03-17| url =http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,406485,00.html| accessdate =2008-03-21}}</ref> |
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Bangladesh has the highest reported incidence of acid assault in the world.<ref name=3a>{{cite journal|last=Mannan|first=Ashim|author2=Samuel Ghani|author3=Alex Clarke|author4=Peter E.M. Butler|title=Cases of chemical assault worldwide: A literature review|journal=Burns|volume=33|issue=2|pages=149–154|doi=10.1016/j.burns.2006.05.002|date=19 May 2006}}</ref> According to the [[Acid Survivors Foundation]] in Bangladesh, the country has reported 3000 acid attack victims since 1999, peaking at 262 victims for the year of 2002.<ref name=12a /> Rates have been steadily decreasing by 15% to 20% since 2002, with the amount of acid attack victims reported at 91 in Bangladesh as recently as 2011.<ref>[http://www.acidsurvivors.org/statistics.html Acid Survivors Foundation (ASF)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Bangladesh acid attacks shows the most gendered discrimination, with one study citing a male to female victim ratio of 0.15:1<ref name=3a /> and another reporting that 82% of acid attack survivors in Bangladesh are women.<ref name=2a /> Younger women were especially prone to attack, with a recent study reporting that 60% of acid assault survivors are between the ages of 10 and 19.<ref name=12a /> According to Mridula Bandyopadhyay and Mahmuda Rahman Khan, it is a [[violence against women|form of violence]] primarily targeted at women. They describe it as a relatively recent form of violence, with the earliest record in Bangladesh from 1983.<ref name=Bandyopadhyay_Khan/> |
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Acid attacks are often referred to as a "[[crime of passion]]," fueled by jealousy and revenge.<ref name=3a /> Actual cases though, show that they are usually the result of rage at a woman who rebuffs the advances of a male. For the country of Bangladesh, such passion is often rooted in [[marriage]] and relationships. One study showed that refusal of [[marriage proposal]]s accounted for 55% of acid assaults, with [[domestic violence|abuse from husband/family member]] (18%), property disputes (11%) and refusal of sexual or romantic advances (2%) as other leading causes.<ref name=6a>{{cite journal|last=Mannan|first=A.|author2=S. Ghani|author3=A. Clarke|author4=P. White|author5=S. Salmanta|author6= P.E.M. Butler|title=Psychosocial outcomes derived from an acid burned population in Bangladesh, and comparison with Western norms|journal=Burns|date=August 2005|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–241|doi=10.1016/j.burns.2005.08.027}}</ref> Additionally, the use of acid attacks in [[dowry]] arguments has been reported in Bangladesh,<ref name=2a /> with 15% of cases studied by the [[Acid Survivors Foundation]] citing dowry disputes as the motive.<ref name=12a /> The chemical agents most commonly used to commit these attacks are [[hydrochloric acid]] and [[sulfuric acid]].<ref name=Anwary>{{Cite news | last = Anwary | first = Afroza | date = Spring 2002 | title = Acid Violence And Medical Care In Bangladesh: Women’s Activism as Carework. | periodical = Gender & Society | issue = 2003 | pages = 305–313 | publisher = [[Sage publications]] | volume = 17 | url = http://gas.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/2/305 | doi = 10.1177/0891243202250851 | accessdate =2008-06-18 | postscript = <!--None-->}}</ref> |
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====India==== |
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Acid attacks in India, like Bangladesh, have a gendered aspect to them: analyses of news reports revealed at least 72% of reported attacks involved women.<ref name=12a /> However, unlike Bangladesh, India's incidence rate of chemical assault has been increasing in the past decade, with a high 27 reported cases in 2010.<ref name=12a /> Altogether, from January 2002 to October 2010, 153 cases of acid assault were reported in Indian print media<ref name=12a /> while 174 judicial cases were reported for the year of 2000.<ref name=9a>{{cite journal|last=Ahmad|first=N.|title=Acid attacks on women: An appraisal of the Indian legal response|journal=Asia Pacific Journal On Human Rights And The Law|date=September 2011|volume=12|issue=2|pages=55–72|doi=10.1163/138819011X13215419937940}}</ref> However, scholars think that this is an underestimation, given that not all attacks are reported in the news, nor do all victims report the crime to officials.<ref name=12a /> |
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Motivation for acid attacks in India mirrors those in Bangladesh: 34% of the analyzed print media in India cited rejection of marriage or refusal by women of sexual advances as the cause of the attack and [[dowry]] disagreements have been shown to spur acid attacks.<ref name=12a /> Land, property, and/or business disputes accounted for 20% of acid assaults in India from 2002 to 2010.<ref name=12a /> Illustrative cases of acid attack include [[Sonali Mukherjee]]'s case of 2012 in Jharkhand for protesting sexual harassment,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/world/india/indian-s-beautiful-life-melted-away-in-an-acid-attack-1.1048670|title=Indian's beautiful life melted away in an acid attack|work=[[Gulf News]]|date=2012-07-14|accessdate=2013-09-21}}</ref> and Muhammad Razaq's case in Jammu & Kashmir in 2014 for an acid attack on his wife for not bringing enough [[dowry]].<ref>[http://ibnlive.in.com/news/srinagar-husband-inlaws-demand-dowry-burn-20yearold-with-acid/474200-3-245.html Srinagar: Husband, in-laws demand dowry, burn 20-year-old with acid] CNN IBN Network, 25 May 2014</ref> |
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====Pakistan==== |
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According to ''[[New York Times]]'' reporter [[Nicholas D. Kristof]], acid attacks are at an all-time high in [[Pakistan]] and increasing every year. The Pakistani attacks he describes are typically the work of husbands against their wives who have "[[Honor killing|dishonored them]]".<ref name="video.nytimes.com">{{cite news| title=Acid Attacks | url=http://video.nytimes.com/video/2008/11/29/opinion/1194834033797/acid-attack.html | work=The New York Times | first=Rob | last=Harris}}</ref> Statistics compiled by the [[Human Rights Commission of Pakistan]] (HRCP) show that 46 acid attacks occurred in Pakistan during 2004 and decreased with only 33 acid assaults reported for 2007.<ref name=13a /> According to a ''New York Times'' article, in 2011 there have been 150 acid attacks in Pakistan, up from 65 in 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/10/world/asia/hope-in-pakistan-for-curbing-acid-attacks.html?pagewanted=all|title= After Suicide, New Focus on Acid Attacks in Pakistan|work=[[New York Times]]|date=2012-04-10|first=Declan|last=Walsh}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> However, other estimates by the [[Human Rights Watch]] and the HRCP cite the number of acid attack victims to be as high 400-750 per year.<ref name=13a /> Motivation behind acid assaults range from [[marriage proposal]] rejections to [[religious fundamentalism]].<ref name=13a /> |
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====Cambodia==== |
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Recent studies on acid attacks in [[Cambodia]] found the victims were almost equally likely to be men or women (48.4% men, 51.6% women).<ref name=12a /> As with [[India]], rates of acid attacks in Cambodia have generally increased in the past decades, with a high rate of 40 cases reported for 2000 that started the increasing trend.<ref name=12a /> According to the [[Cambodian Acid Survivors Charity]], 216 acid attacks were reported from 1985-2009, with 236 reported victims.<ref name=11a /> Jealousy and/or hate is the biggest motivator for acid attacks in Cambodia, as 28% of attacks reported those emotions as the cause. However, such assaults were not only perpetrated by men - some reports suggest women attack other women occur more frequently than men do.<ref name=11a /> Such incidents usually occur between a husband's wife and mistress in order to attain power and socioeconomic security.<ref name=12a /><ref name="NYT-2001-07-22">{{cite news |
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| last = Mydans |
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| first = Seth |
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| title = Vengeance Destroys Faces, and Souls, in Cambodia |
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| work = The New York Times |
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| pages = |
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| language = |
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| publisher = |
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| date = 2001-07-22 |
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| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9902E5DA133AF931A15754C0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |
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| accessdate = 2008-08-29}}</ref> A particularly high-profile case of this nature was the attack on Cambodian teenager [[Tat Marina]] in 1999, allegedly carried out by the jealous wife of a government official (the incident prompted a rash of [[copycat crime]]s that year, raising the number from 7 in 1998 to 40 in 1999). One third of the victims are bystanders.<ref>{{cite web|work=LICADHO|title=Living in the Shadows:Acid attacks in Cambodia|publisher=Project Against Torture|year=2003|accessdate=2013-03-01|url=http://www.licadho-cambodia.org/reports/files/41acid%20report%20English.pdf}}</ref> Women suffer a lot of gender based violence. One of the most violent forms of gender based violence in Cambodia is acid attacks.<ref name=13a/> In Cambodia, there is only one support center that is aiming to help acid attack survivors. They can receive medical and legal support.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[UN Women]]|title=Cambodia: Reclaiming Life after Acid Attacks|date=2011-11-18|accessdate=2013-03-18|url=http://www.unwomen.org/2011/11/cambodia-reclaiming-life-after-acid-attacks/}}</ref> |
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===Middle East=== |
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Acid attacks occurs throughout the [[Middle East]], though comprehensive statistics on these incidences are not readily available. Internet articles cite [[immodesty]] as a motivator for such attacks, with the legs and/or face of women burnt due to nontraditional dress. Recently, acid assault in [[Iran]] has been met with increased sanctions - the [[Sharia]] ''code of quis'', or equivalence justice, required a caught perpetrator of acid violence to both pay a fine and be blinded with acid in both eyes.<ref name=13a /> The victim, [[Ameneh Bahrami]], sentenced her attacker to be blinded in 2008. However, as of July 31, 2011, she pardoned her attacker, thereby absolving Majid Movahedi of his crime and halting the retributive justice of Qisas.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/middle_east/7754756.stm |title= Court orders Iranian man blinded |date=2008-11-28 |accessdate=2008-11-28 |work= BBC News| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081128174742/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/middle_east/7754756.stm| archivedate= 28 November 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/07/2011731135521849999.html |title= Iranian Acid Attack Victim Pardons Culprit |date=2011-07-31 |accessdate=2011-07-31 |work= Al Jazeera English}}</ref> These increased sanctions have occurred as a result of elevating acid violence in [[Iran]] - according to [[Afshin Molavi]] in the early years of the revolution and following the mandating of the covering of hair by women in Iran, some women were threatened with acid attacks by Islamic vigilantes for failing to wear [[hijab]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Molavi|first=Afshin|title=The Soul of Iran: A Nation's Journey to Freedom|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton|location=New York|isbn=978-0-393-32597-3|page=152}}</ref> As stated previously, Iran currently has laws against acid attacks, which are treated as a [[capital offense]]. |
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Aside from Iran, acid violence in other Middle East regions has been reported. In 2006 a group in [[Gaza City|Gaza]] calling itself "Just Swords of Islam" claimed to have thrown acid at a young woman who dressed "immodestly," and warned other women to wear the [[hijab]], a traditional head scarf.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=43326|title=Gaza women warned of immodesty|author=Khaled Abu Toameh|date=2006-12-02 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> Such attacks or threats against women who failed to dress "modestly" or threatened traditional norms have also been reported in [[Afghanistan]]. In November 2008, [[extremist]]s subjected schoolgirls to acid attacks for attending school.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Afghan Girls, Scarred by Acid, Defy Terror, Embracing School |author=Dexter Filkins |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2009-01-13 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/14/world/asia/14kandahar.html }}</ref> Attacks or threats of attacks on women who failed to wear [[hijab]] or were otherwise "immodestly dressed" have been reported in Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite book | author= Chivas, Melody Erma child | authorlink= | title=Meena, heroine of Afghanistan: the martyr who founded RAWA, the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan | year=2003 | publisher=St. Martin's Press | location=New York, N.Y. | ISBN =978-0-312-30689-2 | page=208}}</ref> Furthermore, acid assault has also been documented in Saudi Arabia,<ref name=3a /> with some research indicating that children have been recruited to carry out acid attacks.<ref name=13a /> |
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===Africa=== |
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High incidence of acid assaults have been reported in some African countries, including [[Nigeria]],<ref name=5a>{{cite journal|last=Olaitan|first=Peter B.|author2=Bernard C. Jiburum|title=Chemical injuries from assaults: An increasing trend in a developing country|journal=Indian Journal Of Plastic Surgery|date=January 2008|volume=41|issue=1|pages=20–23|doi=10.4103/0970-0358.41106}}</ref> [[Uganda]],<ref name=10a>{{cite web|title=Acid Violence in Uganda: A Situational Analysis|url=http://www.acidviolence.org/uploads/files/Uganda_ASFU_Situational_Analysis_Report_FINAL_Nov2011_1.pdf|publisher=Acid Survivors Foundation Uganda|accessdate=6 March 2013|pages=1–21|date=November 2011}}</ref> [[Ethiopia]],<ref name=12a /> and [[South Africa]].<ref name=3a /> Unlike occurrences in South Asia, acid attacks in these countries show less gender discrimination. In Uganda, 57% of acid assault victims were female and 43% were male.<ref name=10a /> A study focusing on chemical burns in Nigeria revealed a reversal in findings - 60% of the acid attack patients were male while 40% were female.<ref name=5a /> However, in both nations younger individuals were more likely to suffer from an acid attack: the average age in the Nigeria study was 20.6 years<ref name=5a /> while Ugandan analysis shows 59% of survivors aged from 19–34 years of age.<ref name=10a /> |
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Motivation for acid assault in these African countries is similar to that of Cambodia. "Relationship conflicts" caused 35% of acid attacks in Uganda from 1985-2011, followed by property conflicts at 8% and business conflicts at 5%.<ref name=10a /> Disaggregated data was not available in the Nigeria study, but they reported that 71% of acid assaults resulted from an argument with either a jilted lover, family member, or business partner.<ref name=5a /> As with the other nations, researchers believe these statistics to be under-representative of the actual scope and magnitude of acid attacks in African nations.<ref name=10a /> |
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In August 2013, 2 Jewish women volunteer teachers Katie Gee and Kirstie Trup from the UK were injured by an acid attack by men on a moped near Stone Town.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/zanzibar-acid-attack-recap-updates-2143076|title=Zanzibar acid attack: Recap updates as British teenagers Katie Gee and Kirstie Trup land back in Britain|date=2013-08-09|work=[[Daily Mirror]]|accessdate=2013-09-21}}</ref> |
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===South America=== |
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Though comprehensive statistics on acid attacks in [[South America]] are sparse, a recent study investigating acid assault in [[Bogota]], [[Colombia]] provides some insight for this region. According to the article, the first identified survivor of acid violence in Bogota was attacked 15 years ago, and since then reported cases have been increasing with time. The study also cited the Colombian Forensics Institute, which reported that 56 women complained of aggression by acid in 2010, 46 in 2011, and 16 during the first trimester of 2012. The average age of survivors was about 23 years old, but ranged from 13 to 41 years.<ref name=15a>{{cite journal|last=Guerrero|first=Linda|title=Burns due to acid assaults in Bogotá, Colombia|journal=Burns|date=October 2012|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.burns.2012.10.022}}</ref> |
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The study reported a male:female victim ratio of 1:30 for acid assault in Bogota, Colombia. Reasons behind these attacks usually stemmed from poor interpersonal relationships and domestic intolerance toward women. Moreover, female victims usually came from low [[socioeconomic class]]es and had low education. The authors also state that the prevalence of acid attacks in other areas of South America remains unknown due to significant underreporting.<ref name=15a /> |
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===North America and Europe=== |
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As detailed in the "History" section below, acid attacks in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were common during the 18th century but have since declined as the [[judicial system]] became more developed.<ref name=13a /> Currently acid assault in the US occurs as minorities and shows a correlation with [[alcohol abuse|alcohol]] and/or [[drug abuse]], with specific trends associated with different states. The [[United Kingdom]] has the highest male:female victim ratio (6.14:1),<ref name=15a /> while recently there has been a surge in high-profile, public acid attacks in [[Bulgaria]] and [[Greece]].<ref name=13a /> Additionally, the government of [[New Brunswick]], [[Canada]], has identified acid burns as a common form of [[violence against women]].<ref name=13a /> |
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The number of assaults involving acid throwing and other corrosive substances has tripled in six years in England, official records show. NHS hospital figures record 144 assaults in 2011/12 involving corrosive substances, which can also include petrol, bleach and kerosene. Six years earlier, 56 such episodes were noted. Experts{{who|date=August 2014}} say they believe many of the cases involving acid are linked to communities of [[British Asian|immigrants from Asia]], with women attacked by their husbands or punished for refusing forced marriages.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/10238174/Number-of-UK-attacks-involving-acid-and-other-corrosive-substances-soars.html|title=Number of UK attacks involving acid and other corrosive substances soars|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|date=2013-08-12|accessdate=2013-09-21|location=London|first=Laura|last=Donnelly}}</ref> |
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==History== |
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Acid has been used in [[metallurgy]] since prehistoric times and also for etching since the Middle Ages and antiquity. The rhetorical and theatrical term "La Vitrioleuse" was coined in France after a "wave of vitriolage" occurred according to the popular press, where in 1879, 16 cases of vitriol attacks were widely reported as [[Crime of passion|crimes of passion]], perpetrated predominantly by women against other women.<ref name=13a/> Much was made of the idea that women, no matter how few, had employed violence as means to an end. On October 17, 1915 acid was fatally thrown on [[Prince Leopold Clement of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], heir to the [[House of Koháry]], by his distraught mistress, [[Camilla Rybicka]], who then [[Murder–suicide|killed herself]]. Sensationalizing such incidents made for lucrative newspaper sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=TC19160107.2.10|title=Royal Love Tragedy|work=[[The Colonist]]|publisher=Papers Past, [[National Library of New Zealand]]|date=1916-01-07}}</ref> |
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The use of acid as a weapon began to rise in many [[developing country|developing nations]], specifically those in [[South Asia]].<ref name=7a /> The first recorded acid attacks in South Asia occurred in [[Bangladesh]] in 1967,<ref name=12a>{{cite web|title=Combating Acid Violence In Bangladesh, India, and Cambodia|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/cedaw_crc_contributions/AvonGlobalCenterforWomenandJustice.pdf|publisher=Avon Foundation for Women|accessdate=6 March 2013|author=Avon Global Center for Women and Justice at Cornell Law School|author2=Committee on International Human Rights of the New York City bar Association, Cornell Law School international Human Rights Clinic,|author3= the Virtue Foundation|pages=1–64|year=2011}}</ref> India in 1982, and [[Cambodia]] in 1993.<ref name=13a/> Since then, research has witnessed an increase in the amount and severity of acid attacks in the region. However, this can be traced back to significant underreporting in the 1980s and 1990s, along with a general lack of research for this phenomenon during that time period.<ref name=2a>{{cite web|title=Baseline Report: Violence Against Women in Bangladesh|url=http://www.iwraw-ap.org/aboutus/pdf/FPvaw.pdf|publisher=International Women's Rights Action Watch Asia Pacific|accessdate=6 March 2013|author=Naripokkho|author2=Bangladesh Mahila Parishad}}</ref> Currently, research shows acid attacks increasing in many [[developing country|developing nations]], with the exception of Bangladesh which has observed a decrease in incidence in the past few years.<ref name=12a /> |
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==Legislation== |
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Many countries have begun pushing for [[legislation]] addressing acid attacks, and a few have recently employed new [[law]]s against this crime.<ref name=12a /> Under the [[Qisas]] law of [[Pakistan]], the perpetrator may suffer the same fate as the victim, and may be punished by having drops of acid placed in his/her eyes.<ref name="quisas">{{cite web|url=http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1908/context/archive|title=Pakistan's Acid-Attack Victims Press for Justice|accessdate=2008-05-30|publisher=Women's eNews|date=July 13, 2004|author=Juliette Terzieff| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080612174357/http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1908/context/archive|archivedate= 12 June 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> This law is not binding and is rarely enforced according to a ''[[New York Times]]'' report.<ref name="video.nytimes.com"/> In Pakistan, the Lower House of [[parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]] unanimously passed the Acid Control and Acid Crime Prevention Bill On May 10, 2011. As punishment, according to the bill individuals held responsible for acid attacks face harsh fines and [[life in prison]]. However, the country with the most specific, effective legislation against acid attacks is Bangladesh, and such legal action has resulted in a steady 20-30% decrease in acid violence for the past few years.<ref name=12a /> In 2013, India introduced amendment to the [[Indian Penal Code]] through the [[Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013]], making acid attacks a specific offence with a punishment of imprisonment not less than 10 years and which can extend to life imprisonment and with fine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013|url=http://mha.nic.in/pdfs/TheCrimnalLaw030413.pdf|publisher=Government of India|accessdate=11 April 2013}}</ref> |
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===Legislation in India=== |
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India's top court has ruled that authorities must regulate the sale of acid. The Supreme Court's ruling on July 16, 2013 comes after an incident in which four sisters suffered severe burns after being attacked with acid by two men on a motorbike. An acid called "Tezaab", which is designed to clean rusted tools but is often used in the attacks can currently be bought across the counter. But the judges said the buyer of such acids should in future have to provide a photo identity card to any retailer when they make a purchase. The retailers must register the name and address of the buyer.<ref>{{cite news|title=India's top court moves to curb acid attacks|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2013/07/2013718134222947132.html|work=[[Al Jazeera English]]|date=2013-07-18|accessdate=2013-09-21}}</ref> In 2013, [[Section 326 A of the Indian Penal Code|section 326 A]] of [[Indian Penal Code]] was enacted by the Indian Parliament to ensure enhanced punishment for acid throwing. |
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===Legislation in Bangladesh=== |
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In 2002, [[Bangladesh]] introduced the [[death penalty]] for acid attacks and laws strictly controlling the sale, use, storage, and [[international trade]] of acids. The acids are used in traditional trades carving marble nameplates, [[conch]] bangles, goldsmiths, tanneries, and other industries, which have largely failed to comply with the legislation. Salma Ali of the [[Bangladesh National Women Lawyers' Association]] derided these laws as ineffective.<ref name="Bangladesh laws">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/south_asia/5133410.stm|title=Bangladesh's acid attack problem|accessdate=2008-06-14|publisher=BBC News|date=28 July 2006|author=Roland Buerk | date=2006-07-28}}</ref> The names of these laws are the Acid Crime Control Act (ACCA) and the Acid Control Act (ACA), respectively.<ref name=12a /> |
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The ACCA directly impacts the [[criminal law|criminal]] aspect of acid attacks, and allows for the [[death penalty]] or a level of punishment corresponding to the area of the body affected. If the attack results in a [[Deafness|loss of hearing]] or [[Loss of sight|sight]] or damages the victim's [[face]], [[breast]]s, or [[sex organ]]s then the perpetrator faces either the [[death penalty]] or [[life imprisonment|life sentencing]]. If any other part of the body is maimed, then the criminal faces 7–14 years of [[imprisonment]] in addition to a fine of US$700. Additionally, throwing or attempting to throw acid without causing any physical or mental harm is punishable by this law and could result in a prison term of 3–7 years along with a US$700 fine. Furthermore, [[conspiracy (crime)|conspirators]] that aid in such attacks assume the same [[legal liability|liability]] as those actually committing the crime.<ref name=12a /> |
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The ACA regulates the sale, usage, and storing of acid in Bangladesh through the creation of the National Acid Control Council (NACC). The law requires that the NACC implement policies regarding the trade, misuse, and disposal of acid, while also undertaking initiatives that raise awareness about the dangers of acid and improve victim treatment and rehabilitation. The ACA also calls for district-level committees responsible for enacting local measures that enforce and further regulate acid use in towns and cities.<ref name=12a /> |
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==Portrayals in Media== |
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* "[[The Adventure of the Illustrious Client]]" by Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] – A [[Sherlock Holmes]] story, published in 1924, which culminates in a character, Kitty Winters, throwing [[vitriol]] in the face of another out of revenge. In the 1991 [[Sherlock Holmes (1984 TV series)|television adaptation]] of this story by [[Granada TV]], Kitty is shown to have been badly scarred by a vitriol attack herself. |
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* ''[[Tell Me That You Love Me, Junie Moon]]'' – A 1970 American film based on the fictional novel of the same title by [[Marjorie Kellogg]]. Directed by [[Otto Preminger]], the film stars [[Liza Minnelli]] as the title character, who is a woman scarred by battery acid thrown in her face by her boyfriend. |
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* ''[[Saving Face (2012 film)|Saving Face]]'' – A 2012 documentary film by [[Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy]] and [[Daniel Junge]] that follows Pakistani/British plastic surgeon Dr. Mohammad Jawad to his native Pakistan to aid women who were victims of acid attacks, and examines the Pakistani parliament's exercise in banning the act of acid burning. The film won the 2012 [[Academy Award]] for best Documentary Short. |
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* ''[[Vazhakku Enn 18/9]]'' – A 2012 [[Tamil language]] film directed by [[Balaji Sakthivel]] that narrates the story of an acid attack victim and how corruption, lack of support and manipulation by police leaves the perpetrator walking free and the victim scrambling for justice before she takes law into her own hands. |
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==See also== |
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*[[:Category:Acid attack victims|Acid attack victims]] |
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*[[Domestic violence]] |
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*[[Domestic violence in India]] |
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*[[Domestic violence in Pakistan]] |
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*[[Nasreen Pervin Huq]] |
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*[[Saving Face (documentary)]] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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==Further reading== |
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*{{Cite book |
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| last = Dasgupta |
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| first = Shamita Das |
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| author-link = |
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| year = 2008 |
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| contribution = Acid Attacks |
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| editor-last = Renzetti |
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| editor-first = Claire M. |
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| editor-link = Claire Renzetti |
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| editor2-last = Edleson |
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| editor2-first = Jeffrey L. |
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| editor2-link = Jeffrey Edleson |
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| title = Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence |
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| edition = 1st |
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| publication-place = Thousand Oaks, CA |
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| publisher = [[SAGE Publications]] |
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| volume = 1 |
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| pages = 5–6 |
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| isbn = 978-1-4129-1800-8 |
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| postscript = <!--None-->}} |
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*[http://www.sithi.org/temp.php?url=media_view.php&mid=1230&publication=1 Breaking the Silence: Addressing Acid Attacks in Cambodia] - The Cambodian Acid Survivors Charity |
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== External links == |
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*[http://www.asti.org.uk Acid Survivors Trust International] |
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*[http://www.w4.org/en/voices/acid-attacks-pakistan-portraits-women-survivors “Without a Face”: portraits of women survivors of acid attacks in Pakistan]—by photographer Izabella Demavlys |
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{{Violence against women/end}} |
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{{Social issues in India}} |
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{{Domestic violence}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Acid Throwing}} |
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[[Category:Chemical weapons attacks]] |
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[[Category:Violence against women]] |
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Revision as of 04:11, 23 August 2014
Acid Attacks are claims by women to be violence against them, but are often unfounded. most cases are against men in hateful cases designed to deprive them of property or family by feminists by permanently disfiguring them.