Altitudinal zonation

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Altitudinal zonation or Altitudinal variation is the creation of zones to explain the different characteristic climates at different elevations. The different zones can support different vegetation, agriculture, etc. As one moves to higher elevation points one enters different altitudinal zones. Founded by a geographer named Alexander von Humboldt. Humboldt is also credited with Environmental Lapse Rate - the measure of how many degrees temperature drops as you move to higher elevation. By his delineation (in 1817) of "isothermal lines", he at once suggested the idea and devised the means of comparing the climatic conditions of various countries.

Contents 1 Introduction 2 Europe and Mediterranean sea 2.1 Central Europe: Switzerland & Germany 2.2 Mediterranean: Corsica 3 Tropical Andes 10°S 3.1 Example 4 Kilimanjaro 4.1 Notes 4.2 Vegetation zones 5 Jade Dragon Snow Mountain, 13 peaks 5.1 Notes 6 Ferrocarril Chihuahua al Pacífico 6.1 Notes 7 Darjeeling Himalayan Railway 7.1 Notes 8 See also 9 Gallery 10 Literature

[edit] Introduction

• Temperature: 1,000 m higher, the air temperature is around 5 °C colder, or around 3 °F (1.67 °C) every 1,000 ft (304.8 m).

Saturated adiabatic lapse rate is usually near +4.9 °C/1,000 m (+2.7 °F/1,000 ft or +1.51°C/1,000 ft) at temperatures above freezing. ^[1]

• Humidity: every 5 °C warmer, the water vapor content of saturate air increases around 30%. The Peruvian tales are drier than the Amazonic plains. Examples:
  • Manaus, Brazil; 72 m; annual mean temperature 26.6 °C; annual mean precipitation 2,897 mm.
  • Leticia, Colombia; 84 m; annual mean temperature 25.8 °C; annual mean precipitation 3,298 mm.
  • Yurimaguas, Peru; 184 m; annual mean temperature 26.9 °C; annual mean precipitation 2,047 mm. ^[2]
  • Cuzco, Peru; 3,249 m; annual mean temperature 12.5 °C; annual mean precipitation 736 mm.
• Biogeography (WWF):
  • Ecoregions borders are most of the times a compromise of the distribution of many species.
  • Ecoregions have most of the times an intrinsic inhomogeneity.
  • Borders of ecoregions are most of the times a transition, they are an ecotone. ^[3]

[edit] Europe and Mediterranean sea

[edit] Central Europe: Switzerland & Germany

• Planar, under 300 m (East Alps), under 150 m (Central German hills), agriculture.

• Colin, 300 - 800 m (East Alps), 150 - 300 m (Central German hills), oak limit (Quercus spp.). European Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Sessile oak (Quercus petraea), Pedunculate oak or English oak (Quercus robur), European or common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and small-leaved Lime (Tilia cordata). Grape crop limit (Vitis spp.), around 600 m, Switzerland, North Side, South Slope, estimated 7.5°C. Crops: maize for feed; sweet maize (Zea mays).

• Submontane, 700 - 1,000 m (East Alps), 300 - 450 m (Central German hills), European Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Silver Fir or European Silver Fir (Abies alba) and Norway Spruce (Picea abies). Coniferous forests by reforestation limit around 800 m, North Side.

• Montane, 800 – 1,200 m (East Alps), 450 – 650 m (Central German hills), rye (Secale cereale) crop limit and wheat (Triticum spp.) crop limit.

• Mean Montane, 1,000 – 1,400 m (East Alps), 650 – 800 m (Central German hills). Limit of the whole year populated areas, limit of a growing season of 100 days.

• Altimontane, 1,300 – 1,850 m (East Alps), 800 – 1,500 m (Central German hills). Deciduous forests limit, Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) and European Beech (Fagus sylvatica).

• Subalpine, 1,500 – 2,500 m (East Alps), above 1,500 m (Central German hills), Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway Spruce (Picea abies), Swiss Pine (Pinus cembra, Arve or Zirbel) limit and European Larch (Larix decidua) limit, 2,000 m, some specimens up to 2,850 m, South Slope. Tree line and Krummholz zone or ecotone (stunted subalpine bushes), Sub-alpine meadow and Alpine climate.

• Alpine, 2,000 - 3,000 m (East Alps), Montane grasslands and shrublands. Mountain Pine or Mugo Pine (Pinus mugo) limit. Alpine meadows just used in the warm season.

• Nival, above 3,000 m (East Alps), alpine desert, permafrost, scree and above snow line. ^[4][5][6][7]

[edit] Mediterranean: Corsica

• Thermomediterranean vegetation belt, 150 m (south) and 100 m (north); shrub of Pistacia lentiscus and dense mediterranean coastal scrub (maquis) with Quercus ilex, Phillyrea, Myrtus communis and wild olive (Olea europea var. sylvestris).
• Mesomediterranean vegetation belt, up to 700 m (northern slopes) and 900 m (southern slopes); Erica arborea, Arbutus unedo and Quercus ilex. Forests include Quercus suber, Pinus pinaster, Quercus pubescens and Castanea sativa too.
• Supramediterranean vegetation belt, 500- 700 m up to 900- 1,000 m (northern slopes), or 800- 1,000 m to 1,200- 1,350 m (southern slopes); Erica arborea, Quercus ilex, Quercus petraea, Pinus nigra ssp. laricio, Almus cordata, Ilex aquifolium, Taxus baccata and Ostrya carpinifolia.
• Montane vegetation belt, 900- 1,000 m to 1,600 m (northern slopes) and 1,300 to 1,800 m (southern slopes); forests of Pinus nigra ssp. laricio, Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba. Quercus ilex, Quercus pubescens, Pinus pinaster, Castanea sativa and Erica arborea not present anymore.
• Cryo-oromediterranean vegetation belt, 1,700- 1,800 m to 2,200 m (only southern slopes); above the upper Tree line (Pinus nigra ssp. laricio goes up to 1,800 m), dwarft bushes of Genista lobelii var. lobelioides, Astragalus sirinicus ssp. genargenteus, Anthyllis hemanniae, Thymus herbabarona, Berberis aetnensis and Juniperus communis ssp. alpina.
• Subalpine vegetation belt, 1,400- 1,600 m to 2,100 m (only northern slopes); Alnus viridis ssp. suaveolens, Acer pseudoplatanus, Sorbus aucuparia ssp. praemorsa.
• Alpine vegetation belt, above 2,100 m; sparse vegetation.
• Indicator plants: Rock Speedwell (Veronica fruticans), Potentilla crassinervia, Armeria pusilla, Cerastium thomasii, Phyteuma serratum, Stachys corsica e Helichrysum frigidum. ^[8][9][10]

[edit] Tropical Andes 10°S

Classic Version - Regions of the Amazonic Side

• Sea level, estimated 22 - 24 °C (75 °F, but the cold Humboldt Current generates fog);
• Tierra Caliente (Hot land) up to 750 (about 2,500 ft) - 1,000 m;
• Tierra Templada (Temperate land) up to 1,850 (about 6,000 ft) – 2,000 m

(the warmest month has an average temperature of below 22 °C or 72 °F);

• Tierra Fria (Cool land) below 3,600 m (about 12,000 ft, Tree line)

(the warmest month has an average temperature of below 18 °C or 64 °F);

• Tierra Helada (Cold land) above 3,600 m (about 12,000 ft)

(the definition of Tree line of Coniferae: the warmest month has an average temperature of below 10 °C or 50 °F );

• Tierra Nevada, above the Snow line 4,500 (about 15,000 feet) - 5,000 m

(just warmer than -1 °C over rocks or just warmer than -3 °C over snow).

[edit] Example

• Andes, Pacific Ocean Side, Lima airport, Peru, 30 m, average annual temperature: 19.2 °C (cold Humboldt Current generates fog),

12°1′19″S 77°6′52″W / 12.02194°S 77.11444°W / -12.02194; -77.11444 (Lima airport)

• Andes, Pacific Ocean Side, Arequipa airport, Peru, 2,508 m, average annual temperature: 15.4 °C,

16°20′28″S 71°34′59″W / 16.34111°S 71.58306°W / -16.34111; -71.58306 (Arequipa airport). Railway:

Port of Matarani/ Mollendo; Arequipa; Juliaca; Puno, 3,860 m (Lake Titicaca, 3,812 m); Cusco (Estacion del Sur Wanchaq);

Cusco (Estacion San Pedro, narrow gauge); Machu Picchu, 2,430 m; Quillabamba around 1,000 m (Urubamba River - PeruRail)

• Andes, Amazonian Side, Cuzco airport, Peru, 3'249 m, average annual temperature: 12.5 °C,

13°32′08″S 71°56′37″W / 13.53556°S 71.94361°W / -13.53556; -71.94361 (Cuzco airport)

• Señor de Qoyllur Rit'i (Snow Star) in the church of Sinakara, 4,875 m (16,000 ft) at the end of the glacier,

13°32′45″S 71°13′59″W / 13.54583°S 71.23306°W / -13.54583; -71.23306 (El Señor de Qoyllur Rit'i). Peak Colquepunku, 5,450 m.

• Peak Ausangate, 26 km of Qoyllur Rit'i, 82 km of La Raya pass, 6,384 m,

13°47′19″S 71°13′52″W / 13.78861°S 71.23111°W / -13.78861; -71.23111 (Ausangate)

• La Raya pass, PeruRail scenic stop, 4,313 metres (14,150 ft), watershed between the amazon basin and the endorheic Altiplano basin, between Juliaca and Cuzco. The Juliaca junction links Puno, Arequipa and Cuzco,

14°28′59″S 70°59′20″W / 14.48306°S 70.98889°W / -14.48306; -70.98889 (Abra La Raya)

[edit] Kilimanjaro

Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (3°7′0″S 37°35′0″E / 3.116667°S 37.583333°E / -3.116667; 37.583333 (Kilimanjaro)) & Mount Kenya, Kenya, (0°9′0″S 37°18′0″E / 0.15°S 37.3°E / -0.15; 37.3 (Mount Kenya))

• Malindi; Kenya; 23 m; average annual temperature 26.5 °C; average annual precipitation 1'095 mm; 3°14′0″S 40°6′0″E / 3.233333°S 40.1°E / -3.233333; 40.1 (Malindi)
• Kilimanjaro Base at around 1,300, crops at around 1,300 - 1,800 m (West Slope is too dry): Coffee (Coffea arabica), Banana (Musa spp.), Mango (Mangifera indica), Avocado (Persea americana). Traditional Agriculture uses a multilayer system to save water: Bananas are under the shadows of Mango trees, Avocado trees and Albizia schimperiana var. amaniensis, Coffee bushes and vegetables are under the shadows of Bananas; ^[11][12][13]
• Nairobi International Airport; Kenya; 1,624 m; average annual temperature 19.0 °C; average annual precipitation 889 mm; 01°19′09″S 36°55′39″E / 1.31917°S 36.9275°E / -1.31917; 36.9275 (Nairobi Airport)
• Subtropical moist broadleaf forests, between 1,400 m and 3,000 m (4,600-9,800 ft), max. 3,300 m. Bamboo Zone needs quite a lot of water, it is missing at the Kilimanjaro because of the agriculture;
• Timberline forest, "goat's beard" lichen (Usnea spp.), between 3,000 and 3,500 m (9,850-11,500 ft);
• Tree line, 2,700 - 3,000 m (8,900-9,800 ft), max. 3,500 m (Coniferaes are absent);
• Heathland and chaparral, between 3,200 and 3,800 m (10,500-12,500 ft). Giant Lobelias, up to ca. 4,000 m; Subalpine forests with Ericaceae up to 4,100 m (as heigh as 10 m);
• Afro-alpine zone, above about 3,800 m (12,500 ft), Giant Groundsels up to 4,500 m;
• Nival zone, usually above 4,500 m (14,750 ft).

Vulcano Kibo - Uhuru Peak, 5,895 m rock and ice. As the conifers are absent, the Tree line is lower. ^[2][14][15]

[edit] Notes

• Biomes & Ecoregions nearby: ^[16]

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

-. Eastern Arc forests ^[17]

-. Northern Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest mosaic ^[18]

Flooded grasslands and savannas

-. East African halophytics ^[19]

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

-. Northern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets ^[20]

-. Serengeti volcanic grasslands ^[21]

-. Southern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets ^[22]

Montane grasslands and shrublands

-. East African montane moorlands ^[23]

Mangrove

-. East African mangroves ^[24]

[edit] Vegetation zones

In the altitudes between 3,400 meters (11,000 feet) and 4,500 meters (15,000 feet) some of the most extreme examples of adaptations can be found. At altitudes below 3,400 meters (12,000 feet) the daily temperature fluctuations are less extreme, the average daily temperature steadily increases, and the growth forms and ecology of the Dendroseneico reflect the increased influence of biotic factors (such as competition for light) over abiotic factors (such as nightly frost). ^[26]

[edit] Jade Dragon Snow Mountain, 13 peaks

It is the glacier nearest of the Equator on the North Hemisphere. The landmarks 4,506 m and 4,680 m at the end of the glacier can be achieved through the cable car from Ganhaizi (tibetan for dry lake, a grassland with conifers at 3,400 m). The mountain desert begins around 4,000 m. The Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan (Unesco World Heritage Site) encompasses the watershed areas of the Yangtse (Jinsha), Mekong (Lan Cang) and Salween (Nujiang) rivers and is the joint of the Palearctic ecozone and the Indomalaya ecozone. ^[27]

• Shanzidou Peak; 5,596 m (18,359 ft); 27°05′54″N 100°10′30″E / 27.09833°N 100.175°E / 27.09833; 100.175 (Shanzidou)
• Lijiang; Yunnan is at 2,600 m, the Black Dragon Pool is 15 km south of the mountains; 26°52′34″N 100°13′48″E / 26.87611°N 100.23°E / 26.87611; 100.23 (Lijiang)
• Quambo/ Changdu; 3,306 m; avg annual temperature 7.5 °C; avg annual precipitation 463 mm; 31°09′00″N 97°10′00″E / 31.15°N 97.1666667°E / 31.15; 97.1666667 (Changdu)
• Sichuan Xichang; 1,591 m; avg annual temperature 16.9 °C; avg annual precipitation 974 mm; 27°54′00″N 102°16′00″E / 27.9°N 102.2666667°E / 27.9; 102.2666667 (Sichuan Xichang)
• Taiwan Airport; 48 m; avg annual temperature 21.6 °C; avg annual precipitation 1,714 mm; 25°04′35″N 121°13′26″E / 25.07639°N 121.22389°E / 25.07639; 121.22389 (Taiwan Airport)
• Haikou airport, Hainan; 15 m; avg annual temperature 23.9 °C; avg annual precipitation 1,613 mm; 20°01′04″N 110°20′01″E / 20.01778°N 110.33361°E / 20.01778; 110.33361 (Haikou Airport)
• Hanoi; 15 m; avg annual temperature 23.8 °C; avg annual precipitation 1,682 mm; 21°02′00″N 105°51′00″E / 21.0333333°N 105.85°E / 21.0333333; 105.85 (Hanoi) ^[2][28]

[edit] Notes

• Biomes & Ecoregions nearby: ^[16]

Palearctic ecozone

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

-. Yunnan Plateau subtropical evergreen forests ^[29]

Temperate coniferous forests

-. Hengduan Mountains subalpine conifer forests ^[30]

-. Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests ^[31]

-. Nujiang Langcang Gorge alpine conifer and mixed forests ^[32]

Montane grasslands and shrublands

-. Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows ^[33]

Indomalaya ecozone

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

-. Northern Indochina subtropical forests ^[34]

-. Northern Triangle subtropical forests ^[35]

-. Red River freshwater swamp forests ^[36]

-. South China-Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests ^[37]

-. Hainan Island monsoon rain forests ^[38]

-. Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests ^[39]

-. South Taiwan monsoon rain forests ^[40]

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests

-. Northern Triangle temperate forests ^[41]

Mangrove

-. Indochina mangroves ^[42]

[edit] Ferrocarril Chihuahua al Pacífico

• Mazatlan; 4 m; average annual temperature 24.3 °C,

average annual precipitation 860 mm, 23°12′0″N 106°25′0″W / 23.2°N 106.416667°W / 23.2; -106.416667 (Mazatlan)

• City of Los Mochis, Sinaloa and its port Topolobampo; sea level

• Rising as high as 2,400 m (7,900 ft) above sea level near the continental divide (Divisadero)

• Chihuahua (Ferrocarril Chihuahua al Pacífico), Chihuahua; 1,435 m; average annual temperature 18.4 °C,

average annual precipitation 368 mm, 28°38′0″N 106°05′0″W / 28.633333°N 106.083333°W / 28.633333; -106.083333 (Chihuahua) ^[2]

[edit] Notes

• Biomes & Ecoregions nearby: ^[16]

Nearctic ecozone

Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

-. Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests ^[43]

-. Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests ^[44]

Deserts and xeric shrublands

-. Chihuahuan desert ^[45]

-. Tamaulipan mezquital ^[46]

Neotropic ecozone

Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests

-. Sinaloan dry forests ^[47]

Mangrove

-. Bahia mangroves ^[48]

[edit] Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

• Dacca, Bangladesh; 9 m; average annual temperature 25.6 °C,

average annual precipitation 2,039 mm, 23°46′0″N 90°23′0″E / 23.766667°N 90.383333°E / 23.766667; 90.383333 (Dacca)

• Calcutta, West Bengal; 6 m; average annual temperature 26.9 °C,

average annual precipitation 1,739 mm, 22°32′0″N 88°20′0″E / 22.533333°N 88.333333°E / 22.533333; 88.333333 (Calcutta)

• Siliguri Town, West Bengal; 122 m; 26°42′36″N 88°25′48″E / 26.71°N 88.43°E / 26.71; 88.43 (Siliguri)

• Cherrapunji, Meghalaya; 1,313m; average annual temperature 17.3 °C, it is credited as being the wettest place on Earth,

average annual precipitation 11,777 mm, 25°15′0″N 91°44′0″E / 25.25°N 91.733333°E / 25.25; 91.733333 (Cherrapunji)

• Darjeeling (Darjeeling Himalayan Railway), West Bengal; 2,127 m; average annual temperature 11.8°C,

average annual precipitation 3,037 mm, 27°3′0″N 88°16′0″E / 27.05°N 88.266667°E / 27.05; 88.266667 (Darjeeling) ^[2][49]

[edit] Notes

• Biomes & Ecoregions nearby: ^[16]

Palearctic ecozone

Montane grasslands and shrublands

-. Central Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe ^[50]

-. Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows ^[33]

-. Tibetan Plateau alpine shrub and meadows ^[51]

-. Yarlung Zambo arid steppe ^[52]

Indomalaya ecozone

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

-. Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ^[53]

-. Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests ^[54]

-. Meghalaya subtropical forests ^[55]

-. Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests ^[56]

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests

-. Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests ^[57]

Temperate coniferous forests

-. Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests ^[58]

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

-. Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ^[59]

Mangrove

-. Sundarbans mangroves ^[60]

[edit] See also

• Biome
• Climate zones by altitude
• Darjeeling Himalayan Railway - Siliguri; Darjeeling, West Bengal
• Ferrocarril Chihuahua al Pacífico - City of Los Mochis, Sinaloa and its port Topolobampo; Chihuahua, Chihuahua
• PeruRail - Quillabamba; Machu Picchu (Urubamba River); Cusco; Puno (Lake Titicaca)

[edit] Gallery

Balsam fir distribution.	Crops of wheat (cyan) and its origin (yellow).	Crops of corn (green) and its origin (red).	Crops of rice (green) and its origin (red).
Mangrove distribution.	Watersheds of Mexico.	Map of the Mojave and Sonoran deserts.	Map of the Chihuahuan desert (NASA). Ecoregion boundary based on WWF. The US-Mexico border is shown as a black line.
Map of the Amazon Basin. Urubamba River; Ucayali River; Amazon River; Brazil; Solimoes River; Amazon River.	Topography of India.	Lijiang City, Yunnan, China.	Mount Kilimanjaro - Vulcano Kibo, anytime between 1906-1918.
Kilimanjaro (3 vulcanoes) - Vulcano Kibo, 1939.	Mount Kilimanjaro - Vulcano Kibo, July 2007.	Mount Kilimanjaro - Vulcano Kibo. Mountain Tundra.	Ausangate - Inca Sacred Montain (Apu).
Qoyllur Rit'i, glacier and alpine desert - 2007.	Cotopaxi (5,897 m), Ecuador, with the snow line at ca. 5,000 m, seen from 3,700 m.	Jade Dragon Snow Mountain on the back - Lijiang City, Yunnan, China.	Panorama of Lijiang City.

[edit] Literature

1. ^ Adiabatic Lapse Rate, IUPAC Goldbook
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} http://www.klimadiagramme.de/
3. ^ http://www.worldwildlife.org WWFBinaryitem6596.zip
4. ^ Heinz Ellenberg: Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen in ökologischer, dynamischer und historischer Sicht. Ulmer, Stuttgart 1996
5. ^ Hannes Mayer (1974); Wälder des Ostalpenraumes - Standort, Aufbau und waldbauliche Bedeutung der wichtigsten Waldgesellschaften in den Ostalpen samt Vorland.
6. ^ Hannes Mayer (1984); Wälder Europas.
7. ^ O. Wittmann (1983); Standortkundliche Landschaftsgliederung von Bayern. In: Materialien 21, Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Landesentwicklung und Umweltfragen, München.
8. ^ Hannes Mayer (1988); Die Wälder Korsikas. Wanderungen durch ein Waldparadies.
9. ^ Reille, M., Gamisans, J., de Beaulieu, J.-L., Andrieu, V. (2009); The late-glacial at Lac de Creno (Corsica, France): a key site in the western Mediterranean basin; New Phytologist Vol. 135, Issue 3, pp. 547 - 559 [1]
10. ^ Gamisans, J. (1991); La végétation de la Corse, Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève, Suisse.
11. ^ http://www.ihdp.unu.edu/article/597 The Chagga Homegardens on Kilimanjaro
12. ^ Hemp, C. (2005); The Chagga Home Gardens – relict areas for endemic Saltatoria Species (Insecta: Orthoptera) on Mt. Kilimanjaro. Biodiversity and Conservation 125: 203-210.
13. ^ Hemp, A. (2006); The banana forests of Kilimanjaro. Biodiversity and conservation of the agroforestry system of the Chagga Home Gardens. Biodiversity and Conservation 15(4): 1193-1217.
14. ^ http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilimandscharo
15. ^ Allan, Iain (1981). The Mountain Club of Kenya Guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro. Nairobi: Mountain Club of Kenya. ISBN 978-9966985606. 
16. ^ ^{a b c d} http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/terrestrial.html WWF Global 200: World Map of 14 Terrestrial Biomes and 867 Ecoregions
17. ^ AT0109 Eastern Arc forests, WWF
18. ^ AT0125 Northern Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest mosaic, WWF
19. ^ AT0901 East African halophytics, WWF
20. ^ AT0711 Northern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets, WWF
21. ^ AT0714 Serengeti volcanic grasslands, WWF
22. ^ AT0716 Southern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets, WWF
23. ^ AT1005 East African montane moorlands, WWF
24. ^ AT1402 East African mangroves, WWF
25. ^ "Africa Ultra-Prominences". 84 Mountains with prominence of 1,500m (4,921 ft) or greater. PEAKLIST. http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/africa.html. Retrieved 2008-05-05. 
26. ^ ^{a b} Knox, Eric B. (2004). "Adaptive radiation of African montane plants". in Ulf Dieckmann. Adaptive Speciation. Cambridge University Press. pp. 476 pages. ISBN 0521828422. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z-gCf7TD9-MC&pg=RA1-PA345. Retrieved 2008-03-29. 
27. ^ www.travelchinaguide.com/attraction/yunnan/lijiang/jade_dragon.htm
28. ^ http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Klima_hanoi.jpg
29. ^ PA0102 Yunnan Plateau subtropical evergreen forests, WWF
30. ^ PA0509 Hengduan Mountains subalpine conifer forests, WWF
31. ^ PA0514 Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests, WWF
32. ^ PA0516 Nujiang Langcang Gorge alpine conifer and mixed forests, WWF
33. ^ ^{a b} PA1003 Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows, WWF
34. ^ IM0137 Northern Indochina subtropical forests, WWF
35. ^ IM0140 Northern Triangle subtropical, WWF
36. ^ IM0147 Red River freshwater swamp, WWF
37. ^ IM0149 South China-Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests, WWF
38. ^ IM0169 Hainan Island monsoon rain forests, WWF
39. ^ IM0172 Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests, WWF
40. ^ IM0171 South Taiwan monsoon rain forests, WWF
41. ^ IM0402 Northern Triangle temperate forests, WWF
42. ^ IM1402 Indochina mangroves, WWF
43. ^ NA0302 Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests, WWF
44. ^ NA0303 Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests, WWF
45. ^ NA1303 Chihuahuan desert, WWF
46. ^ NA1312 Tamaulipan mezquital, WWF
47. ^ NT0228 Sinaloan dry forests, WWF
48. ^ NT1404 Bahia mangroves, WWF
49. ^ http://www.w-hanisch.de/geoklima/ Geoklima, Software: Geoklima 2.1
50. ^ PA1002 Central Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe, WWF
51. ^ PA1020 Tibetan Plateau alpine shrub and meadows, WWF
52. ^ PA1022 Yarlung Zambo arid steppe, WWF
53. ^ IM0105 Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests, WWF
54. ^ IM0120 Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, WWF
55. ^ IM0126 Meghalaya subtropical forests, WWF
56. ^ IM0162 Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, WWF
57. ^ IM0401 Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests, WWF
58. ^ IM0501 Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests, WWF
59. ^ IM0701 Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands, WWF
60. ^ IM1406 Sundarbans mangroves, WWF

v • d • e Ecozones Afrotropic · Antarctic · Australasia · Indomalaya · Nearctic · Neotropic · Oceania · Palearctic

v • d • e Terrestrial biomes Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests · Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests · Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests · Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests · Temperate coniferous forests · Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub · Boreal forests/taiga · Mangrove · Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands · Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands · Flooded grasslands and savannas · Montane grasslands and shrublands · Deserts and xeric shrublands · Tundra