Antimony

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This article is about the element. For the town, see Antimony, Utah.
Not to be confused with Antinomy, a type of paradox.
tin ← antimony → tellurium
As
↑
Sb
↓
Bi
Appearance
silvery lustrous gray
General properties
Name, symbol, number antimony, Sb, 51
Pronunciation /ˈæntɨmɵnɪ/
an-ti-mo-nee[note 1]
Element category metalloid
Group, period, block 15, 5, p
Standard atomic weight 121.760(1)
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 (Image)
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 6.697 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p. 6.53 g·cm−3
Melting point 903.78 K, 630.63 °C, 1167.13 °F
Boiling point 1860 K, 1587 °C, 2889 °F
Heat of fusion 19.79 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 193.43 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity 25.23 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 807 876 1011 1219 1491 1858
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 5, 3, -3
Electronegativity 2.05 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
(more)		 1st: 834 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1594.9 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2440 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius 140 pm
Covalent radius 139±5 pm
Van der Waals radius 206 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure trigonal
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[1]
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 417 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity 24.4 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 11 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 °C) 3420 m·s−1
Young's modulus 55 GPa
Shear modulus 20 GPa
Bulk modulus 42 GPa
Mohs hardness 3.0
Brinell hardness 294 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-36-0
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of antimony
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
121Sb 57.36% 121Sb is stable with 70 neutrons
123Sb 42.64% 123Sb is stable with 72 neutrons
125Sb syn 2.7582 y β− 0.767 125Te
· r

Antimony (play /ænˈtɪmɵni/ an-ti-mo-nee or play /ˈæntəˌmoʊni/ an-tə-moh-nee;[note 2] Latin: stibium) is a toxic chemical element with the symbol Sb and an atomic number of 51. A lustrous grey metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were used for cosmetics, metallic antimony was also known but mostly identified as lead.

For some time China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products. The largest application for metallic antimony is as alloying material for lead and tin. It improves the properties of the alloys which are used as in solders, bullets and ball bearings. An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics.

Contents

[edit] History

An unshaded circle surmounted by a cross.
One of the alchemical symbols for antimony

Antimony's sulfide compound, antimony(III) sulfide, Sb2S3 was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic (kohl), at least as early as ca. 3100 BC when the cosmetic palette was invented.

An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Tello, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt.[2] One contemporary (Austen, at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone, published in 1892) was reported[3] to comment that "we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable."[3] However, Moorey was unconvinced that the artefact was indeed a vase, mentioning that Selimkhanov, after his analysis of the Telloh object (published in 1975), "attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony" (i.e. native metal) and that "the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments."[3] This weakens the evidence for a lost art "of rendering antimony malleable."[3]

The first European description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio. This book predates the more famous 1556 book by Agricola, De re metallica, even though Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. A text describing the preparation of metallic antimony that was published in Germany in 1604 purported to date from the early fifteenth century, and if authentic it would predate Biringuccio. The book, written in Latin, was called "Currus Triumphalis Antimonii" (The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), and its putative author was a certain Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus.[4][5][6][7]

Pure antimony was well known to Jābir ibn Hayyān, sometimes called "the Father of Chemistry", in the 8th century. Here there is still an open controversy: Marcellin Berthelot, who translated a number of Jābir's books, stated that antimony is never mentioned in them, but other authors[6][8] claim that Berthelot translated only some of the less important books, while the more interesting ones (some of which might describe antimony) are not yet translated, and their content is completely unknown.[9]

The first natural occurrence of pure antimony ('native antimony') in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783. The type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, Västmanland, Sweden.[10][11]

[edit] Etymology

The ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, kohl, the sulfide of antimony. Pliny the Elder, however, distinguishes between male and female forms of antimony; his male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, is probably native metallic antimony.[12]

The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt; in hieroglyphs, the vowels are uncertain, but there is an Arabic tradition that the word is ميسديميت mesdemet.[13][14] The Greek word, στίμμι stimmi, is probably a loan word from Arabic or Egyptian sdm

O34
D46		 G17 F21
D4

, and is used by the Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC; later Greeks also used στἰβι stibi, as did Celsus and Pliny, writing in Latin, in the first century AD. Pliny also gives the names stimi [sic], larbaris, alabaster, and the "very common" platyophthalmos, "wide-eye" (from the effect of the cosmetic). Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium. The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as إثمد ithmid, athmoud, othmod, or uthmod. Littré suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from stimmida, (one) accusative for stimmi.[15]

The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to the 18th century chemical pioneer, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who used this abbreviation of the name stibium.[16] The medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek, take their names, is antimonium. The origin of this is uncertain; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from ἀντίμοναχός anti-monachos or French antimoine, still has adherents; this would mean "monk-killer", and is explained by many early alchemists being monks, and antimony being poisonous.[note 3] So does the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος antimonos, "against one", explained as "not found as metal", or "not found unalloyed".[2][17] Lippmann conjectured a Greek word, ανθήμόνιον anthemonion, which would mean "floret", and he cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence.[18]

The early uses of antimonium include the translations, in 1050–1100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises.[19] Several authorities believe that antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid;[20] other possibilities include Athimar, the Arabic name of the metal, and a hypothetical as-stimmi, derived from or parallel to the Greek.[21][22]

[edit] Characteristics

[edit] Properties

A clear vial containing small chunks of a slightly lustrous black solid, labeled "Sb".
A vial containing a black allotrope of antimony
An irregular piece of silvery stone with spots of variation in lustre and shade.
Native antimony with oxidation products
Crystal structure common to Sb, AsSb and grey As

Antimony is in the nitrogen group (group 15) and has an electronegativity of 2.05. As expected by periodic trends, it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth, and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic.

Antimony is stable in air at room temperature but reacts with oxygen if heated to form antimony trioxide, Sb2O3.

Antimony is a silvery, lustrous gray metal that has a Mohs scale hardness of 3. Therefore, antimony by itself is not used to make hard objects: coins made of antimony were issued in China's Guizhou province in 1931, but because of their rapid wear their minting was discontinued.[23] Antimony is resistant to attack by acids.

Four allotropes of antimony are known: a stable metallic form, and three metastable forms: explosive, black and yellow. Metallic antimony is a brittle, silver-white shiny metal. When molten antimony is slowly cooled, metallic antimony crystallizes in an hexagonal cell, isomorphic with that of the grey allotrope of arsenic. A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony(III) trichloride. When scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes given off as metallic antimony is formed; alternatively, when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, a strong detonation occurs. Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of gaseous metallic antimony. It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic, it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously. At 100 °C, it gradually transforms into the stable form. The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable. It has only been generated by oxidation of stibine (SbH3) at −90 °C. Above this temperature and in ambient light, this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope.[2][6][24]

Metallic antimony adopts a double-layered structure (space group R3m No. 166) consisting of many interlocked ruffled six-membered rings. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form a distorted octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same double-layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6.697 g/cm3 whereas the low hardness and brittleness of antimony originate from the weak bonding among the layers.[25]:758

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of antimony

Antimony exists as two stable isotopes, 121Sb with a natural abundance of 57.36% and 123Sb with a natural abundance of 42.64%. It also has 35 radioisotopes, of which the longest-lived is 125Sb with a half-life of 2.75 years. In addition, 29 metastable states have been characterised. The most stable of these is 124Sb with a half-life of 60.20 days, this isotop has also an application in some neutron sources. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β- decay, with some exceptions.[26]

[edit] Occurrence

See also: Category:Antimonide minerals and Category:Antimonate minerals
Stibnite

The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated at 0.2 to 0.5 parts per million, comparable to thallium at 0.5 parts per million and silver at 0.07 ppm.[27] Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in over 100 mineral species. Antimony is sometimes found native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite (Sb2S3) which is the predominant ore mineral.[27] Commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are powder, shot, and single crystals.

[edit] Production

Antimony output in 2005
World production trend of antimony

In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of antimony with about 84% world share followed at a distance by South Africa, Bolivia and Tajikistan, reports the British Geological Survey. The mine with the largest deposits in China is Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan province with an estimated deposit of 2.1 million metric tons.[28] In October 2011 a deposit of antimony was found in a shallow seabed about 50 km off Amami-Oshima Island in Kagoshima Prefecture. The discovery was the first time that antimony had been found at such shallow depths (480 meters), with this type of mineral deposit only ever having been found in depths in excess of 1000 meters.[29]

The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality of the ore and composition of the ore. Most of the antimony is mined as sulfide. Lower grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation while higher grade ores are heated to 500–600°C, at this temperature stibnite melts and is separated from the gangue minerals. Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by a reduction with scrap iron:[30]

Sb2S3 + 3 Fe → 2 Sb + 3 FeS

The sulfide is converted to an oxide and advantage is often taken of the volatility of antimony(III) oxide, which is recovered from roasting.[31] This material is often used directly for the main applications, impurities being arsenic and sulfide.[32][33] Isolating antimony from its oxide is performed by a carbothermal reduction:[32][30]

2 Sb2O3 + 3 C → 4 Sb + 3 CO2

The lower grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces.[30]

Antimony production in 2010[27]
Country Tonnes  % of total
 People's Republic of China 120,000 88.9
 South Africa 3,000 2.2
 Bolivia 3,000 2.2
 Russia 3,000 2.2
 Tajikistan 2,000 1.5
Top 5 131,000 97.0
Total world 135,000 100.0

[edit] Compounds

See also: Category:Antimony compounds

Antimony compounds are often classified into those of Sb(III) and Sb(V).[34] Relative to its neighboring element As, the 5+ oxidaton state is more stable.

[edit] Oxides and hydroxides

Antimony trioxide (Sb4O6) is formed when antimony is burnt in air.[35] In the gas phase, this compound exists as Sb4O6, but it polymerises upon condensing.[25] Antimony pentoxide, (Sb4O10) can only be formed by oxidation by concentrated nitric acid.[36] Antimony also forms a mixed-valence oxide, antimony tetroxide (Sb2O4), which features both Sb(III) and Sb(V).[36] Unlike phosphorus and arsenic, these various oxides are amphoteric and do not form well-defined oxoacids and react with acids to form antimony salts.

Antimonous acid Sb(OH)3 is unknown but the conjugate base sodium antimonite ([Na3SbO3]4) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and Sb4O6.[25]:763 Transition metal antimonites are also known.[37]:122 Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate HSb(OH)6, forming salts containing the antimonate anion Sb(OH)−
6. Dehydrating metal salts containing this anion yields mixed oxides.[37]:143

Many antimony ores are sulfides, including stibnite (Sb2S3), pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite.[25]:757 Antimony pentasulfide is non-stoichiometric and features antimony in the +3 oxidation state and S-S bonds.[38] Several thioantimonides are known such as [Sb6S10]2− and [Sb8S13]2−.[39]

[edit] Halides

Antimony forms two series of halides, SbX3 and SbX5. The trihalides SbF3, SbCl3, SbBr3, and SbI3 are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry. The trifluoride SbF3 is prepared by the reaction of Sb2O3 with HF:[25]:761–762

Sb2O3 + 6 HF → 2 SbF3 + 3 H2O

It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions SbF−
4 and SbF2−
5. Molten SbF3 is a weak electrical conductor. The trichloride SbCl3 is prepared by dissolving Sb2S3 in hydrochloric acid:

Sb2S3 + 6 HCl → 2 SbCl3 + 3 H2S
Structure of gaseous SbF5

The pentahalides SbF5 and SbCl5 have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase, but in the liquid phase, SbF5 is polymeric, whereas SbCl5 is monomeric.[25]:761 SbF5 is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid ("HSbF6").

Oxyhalides are more common for antimony than arsenic and phosphorus. Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form antimony oxo- (antimonyl) compounds such as SbOCl and (SbO)2SO4.[25]:764

[edit] Antimonides, hydrides, and organoantimony compounds

Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb3-. Antimony forms antimonides with metals, such as indium antimonide (InSb), and silver antimonide (Ag3Sb).[25]:760 The alkali metal and zinc antimonides, e.g. Na3Sb and Zn3Sb2, are more reactive. Treating these antimonides with acid produces the unstable gas stibine, SbH3:[40]

Sb3− + 3 H+ → SbH3

Stibine can also be produced by treating Sb3+ salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride. Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature. Because stibine is thermodynamically unstable (positive heat of formation), antimony does not react with hydrogen directly.[34]

Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents.[41] A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb(III) and Sb(V) centers including mixed chloro-organic derivatives, anions, and cations. Examples include Sb(C6H5)3 (triphenylstibine), Sb2(C6H5)4 (with an Sb-Sb bond), and cyclic [Sb(C6H5)]n. Pentacoordinated organoantimony compounds are common, examples being Sb(C6H5)5 and several related halides.

[edit] Applications

The largest application world wide for antimony is the use as flame retardants with 60% while the use in alloys for batteries, bearings and solders accounts for 20% of the produced antimony.[30]

[edit] Flame retardants

The main use of antimony is in the form of antimony trioxide is used in the making of flame-proofing compounds. It is nearly always used in combination with halogenated flame retardants only exception is in halogen containing polymers. The formation of halogenated antimony compounds is the cause for the flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide.[42] It improves Markets for these flame-retardant applications include children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. It is also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed. Fireproofing consumes about half of the annual production of antimony.[31][43]

[edit] Alloys

Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. For most of the application where lead is used varying amounts of antimony are use as alloying metal. The Sb–Pb alloy is used in lead–acid batteries.[31][44] It is used in antifriction alloys, such as Babbitt metal.[45] It is used as an alloy in bullets and lead shot, cable sheathing, type metal (e.g. for linotype printing machines[46]), solder – some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb,[47] in pewter,[48] and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes.

[edit] Other main applications

Three other application make up nearly the complete rest of the consumption.[30] one use is in polymers. Antimony compounds are used as stabilizer and it is as a catalyst for the production of the polymer polyethyleneterephthalate.[30] Another application is as an additive in some glasses. In the latter application, antimony oxides serve as fining agents, aiding in the removal of microscopic bubbles. This application is mainly used for TV screens.[49] The third large application is the use as pigment.[30]

[edit] Other applications

In tiny amounts, antimony is increasingly being used in the semiconductor industry as a dopant for ultra-high conductivity n-type silicon wafers[50] in the production of diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices.

In the 1950s, tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy were used to dope the emitters and collectors of NPN alloy junction transistors with antimony.[51]

Indium antimonide is used as a material for mid infrared detectors.[52][53][54]

Captain James Cook's antimonial cup

Few biological or medical applications exist for antimony. Treatments principally containing antimony are known as antimonials and are used as emetics.[55] Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs. Potassium antimonyl tartrate, or tartar emetic, was once used as an anti-schistosomal drug from 1919 on. It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel.[56] Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like anthiomaline or lithium antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants.[57] Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Antimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals. Unfortunately, as well as having low therapeutic indices, the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow, where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside, and so cure of the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult.[58]Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine. It could be reused by others after ingestion.[59]

In the heads of some safety matches antimony(III) sulfide is used.[60][61] Antimony-124 together with beryllium is used in neutron sources. The gamma rays emitted by antimony-124 initiate a photodisintegration of beryllium. [62][63] The emmited neutrons have an average of 24 keV. [64] Antimony sulfides have been shown to help stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials.[65] Antimony also is used in the making of bullets and bullet tracers.[66] This element is also used in traditional cosmetics[67][68] and event paint and glass art crafts. The use in enamel as opacifiers was reduced since the 1930s after several intoxications happened.[60][69]

[edit] Precautions

Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic, and the effects of antimony poisoning are similar to arsenic poisoning. The toxicity of antimony is by far lower than that of arsenic, this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake, metabolism and excretion between arsenic and antimony. The uptake of antimony(III) or antimony(VI) in the gastrointestinal tract is at most 20%. Antimony(VI) is not quantitative reduced to antimony(III) in the cell. Methylation of antimony does not occur and therefore the excretion of antimony(VI) in the urine is the main way of elimination.[70] Reported cases of intoxication by antimony equivalent to 90 mg antimony potassium tartrate dissolved from enamel showed only short term effects. An intoxication with 6 g of antimony potassium tartrate was deadly after 3 days.[68]

Inhalation of antimony dust is harmful and in certain cases may be fatal; in small doses, antimony causes headaches, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses such as prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis; otherwise it can damage the kidneys and the liver, causing violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a few days.

Antimony is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, strong acids, halogen acids, chlorine, or fluorine. It should be kept away from heat.[71]

Antimony leaches from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into liquids.[72] While levels observed for bottled water are below drinking water guidelines,[73] fruit juice concentrates (for which no guidelines are established) produced in the UK were found to contain up to 44.7 µg/L of antimony, well above the EU limits for tap water of 5 µg/L.[74][75] The guidelines are:

[edit] See also

Book icon Book: Antimony
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[edit] Notes

  1. ^ In the UK, the variable vowel /ɵ/ is usually pronounced as a schwa [ə]; in the US, it is generally a full [oʊ].
  2. ^ In the UK, the variable vowel /ɵ/ is usually pronounced as a schwa [ə]; in the US, it is generally a full [oʊ].
  3. ^ The use of a symbol resembling an upside down "female" symbol for antimony could also hint at a satirical pun in this origin

[edit] References

  1. ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
  2. ^ a b c Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th ed. 2004. Entry for antimony.
  3. ^ a b c d Moorey, P. R. S. (1994). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence. New York: Clarendon Press. p. 241. ISBN 9781575060422. http://books.google.com/?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA241. 
  4. ^ Already in 1710 Wilhelm Gottlob Freiherr von Leibniz, after careful inquiry, concluded that the work was spurious, that there was no monk named Basilius Valentinus, and the book's author was its ostensible editor, Johann Thölde (ca. 1565-ca. 1624). There is now agreement among professional historians that the Currus Triumphalis... was written after the middle of the sixteenth century and that Thölde was likely its author.Priesner, Claus and Figala, Karin, ed. (1998) (in German). Alchemie. Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft. München: C.H. Beck. 
  5. ^ s.v. "Basilius Valentinus." Harold Jantz was perhaps the only modern scholar to deny Thölde's authorship, but he too agrees that the work dates from after 1550: see his catalogue of German Baroque literature.
  6. ^ a b c Wang, Chung Wu (1919). "The Chemistry of Antimony". Antimony: Its History, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Metallurgy, Uses, Preparation, Analysis, Production and Valuation with Complete Bibliographies. London, United Kingdom: Charles Geiffin and Co. Ltd. pp. 6–33. http://library.sciencemadness.org/library/books/antimony.pdf. 
  7. ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists". Journal of Chemical Education 9: 11. doi:10.1021/ed009p11. 
  8. ^ Dampier, William Cecil (1961). A history of science and its relations with philosophy & religion. London: Cambridge U.P.. p. 73. ISBN 9780521093668. http://books.google.com/?id=6kM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA73. 
  9. ^ Mellor, Joseph William (1964). "Antimony". A comprehensive treatise on inorganic and theoretical chemistry. p. 339. http://books.google.de/books?id=BGE6AQAAIAAJ. 
  10. ^ "Native antimony". Mindat.org. http://www.mindat.org/min-262.html. 
  11. ^ Klaproth, M. (1803). "XL.Extracts from the third volume of the analyses". Philosophical Magazine Series 1 17 (67): 230. doi:10.1080/14786440308676406. http://books.google.de/books?id=qxtRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA232. 
  12. ^ Pliny, Natural history, 33.33; W.H.S. Jones, the Loeb Classical Library translator, supplies a note suggesting the identifications.
  13. ^ Albright, W. F. (1918). "Notes on Egypto-Semitic Etymology. II". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 34 (4): 215–255. doi:10.1086/369866. JSTOR 528157. 
  14. ^ Sarton, George (1935). "Review of Al-morchid fi'l-kohhl, ou Le guide d'oculistique, translated by Max Meyerhof" (in French). Isis 22 (2): 539–542. doi:10.1086/346926. JSTOR 225136.  quotes Meyerhof, the translator of the book he is reviewing.
  15. ^ LSJ, s.v., vocalisation, spelling, and declension vary; Endlich, p. 28; Celsus, 6.6.6 ff; Pliny Natural History 33.33; Lewis and Short: Latin Dictionary. OED, s. "antimony".
  16. ^ In his long article on chemical reactions and nomenclature – Jöns Jacob Berzelius, "Essay on the cause of chemical proportions, and on some circumstances relating to them: together with a short and easy method of expressing them," Annals of Philosophy, vol. 2, pages 443–454 (1813) and vol. 3, pages 51–62, 93–106, 244–255, 353–364 (1814) – on page 52, Berzelius lists the symbol for antimony as "St" ; however, starting on page 248, Berzelius subsequently uses the symbol "Sb" for antimony.
  17. ^ Fernando, Diana (1998). Alchemy : an illustrated A to Z. Blandford.  Fernando even derives it from the story of how "Basil Valentine" and his fellow monastic alchemists poisoned themselves by working with antimony; antimonium is found two centuries before his time. "Popular etymology" from OED; as for antimonos, the pure negative would be more naturally expressed by a- "not".
  18. ^ Lippman, pp. 643–5
  19. ^ Lippman, p. 642, writing in 1919, says "zuerst".
  20. ^ Meyerhof as quoted in Sarton, asserts that ithmid or athmoud became corrupted in the medieval "traductions barbaro-latines".; the OED asserts that some Arabic form is the origin, and if ithmid is the root, posits athimodium, atimodium, atimonium, as intermediate forms.
  21. ^ Endlich, p. 28; one of the advantages of as-stimmi would be that it has a whole syllable in common with antimonium.
  22. ^ Endlich, F. M. (1888). "On Some Interesting Derivations of Mineral Names". The American Naturalist 22 (253): 21–32. doi:10.1086/274630. JSTOR 2451020. 
  23. ^ "Metals Used in Coins and Medals". ukcoinpics.co.uk. http://www.ukcoinpics.co.uk/metal.html. 
  24. ^ Norman, Nicholas C (1998). page2 50–51 Chemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. ISBN 9780751403893. http://books.google.de/books?id=vVhpurkfeN4C&pg=PA50%7C page2 50–51. 
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 Periodic table
H   He
Li Be   B C N O F Ne
Na Mg   Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca   Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr   Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Lanthanides Actinides Transition metals Post-transition metals Metalloids Other nonmetals Halogens Noble gases Unknown chem. properties
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