Automobile drag coefficient

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The drag coefficient is a common metric in automotive design, where designers strive to achieve a low coefficient. Minimizing drag is done to improve fuel efficiency at highway speeds, where aerodynamic effects represent a substantial fraction of the energy needed to keep the car moving. Indeed, aerodynamic drag increases as the square of speed. Aerodynamics are also of increasing concern to truck designers, where a lower drag coefficient translates directly into lower fuel costs.

About 60% of the power required to cruise at highway speeds is taken up overcoming air drag, and this increases very quickly at high speed. Therefore, a vehicle with substantially better aerodynamics will be much more fuel efficient.


Contents

[edit] Drag in sports and racing cars

Reducing drag is also a factor in sports car design, where fuel efficiency is less of a factor, but where low drag helps a car achieve a high top speed. However, there are other important aspects of aerodynamics that affect cars designed for high speed, including racing cars. Notably, it is important to minimize lift, hence increasing downforce, to avoid the car ever becoming airborne. Increasing the downforce pushes the car down onto the race track -- allowing higher cornering speed for the vehicle. Also it is important to maximize aerodynamic stability: some racing cars have tested well at particular "attack angles", yet performed catastrophically, i.e. flipping over, when hitting a bump or experiencing turbulence from other vehicles (most notably the Mercedes-Benz CLR). For best cornering and racing performance, as required in Formula 1 cars, downforce and stability are crucial and these cars must attempt to maximize downforce and maintain stability while attempting to minimize the overall Cd value.

[edit] Typical values and examples

The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.30 and 0.35. SUVs, with their typically boxy shapes and larger frontal area, typically achieve a Cd of 0.35–0.45. A very gently inclined windshield gives a lower drag coefficient but has safety disadvantages, including reduced driver visibility. Certain cars can achieve figures of 0.25–0.30, although sometimes designers deliberately increase drag in order to reduce lift.

Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires and extra spoilers.

Production cars
Cd Automobile Year
0.7 to 1.1 typical values for a Formula 1 car (downforce settings change for each circuit)
0.74 Legends Car
0.7 Caterham Seven
0.6 + a typical truck
0.57 Hummer H2 2003
0.54 Mercedes Benz G-Class
0.51 Citroën 2CV 1948
0.48 Volkswagen Beetle (newer models) [1][2]
0.48 Rover Mini 1998
0.47 Lancia Aprilia 1937
0.46 Ford Mustang (coupe) 1979
0.45 Range Rover Classic 1990
0.45 Dodge Viper RT/10 1996
0.44 Ford Mustang (fastback) 1979
0.44 Peugeot 305 1978
0.44 Peugeot 504 1968
0.44 Toyota Truck 1990
0.43 TVR 3000S 1978-79
0.425 Duple 425 coach
(named for its low Cd by coach standards)		 c.1985
0.42 Lamborghini Countach 1974
0.42 Triumph Spitfire Mk IV 1971
0.42 Plymouth Duster 1994
0.41 Volvo 740 (sedan) 1982
0.40 Ford Escape Hybrid 2005
0.40 Nissan Skyline GT-R R32 1989
0.39 Chevrolet Tahoe 2006
0.39 Dodge Durango 2004
0.39 Triumph Spitfire 1964
0.385 Nissan 280ZX 1978
0.38 Lexus GX 2003
0.38 Mazda Miata 1989
0.38 Subaru Forester 2009 [3]
0.48 Volkswagen Beetle (original design)[4] 1938
0.38 VW NewBeetle[5]
without wing or spoiler 0.39[6]		 2003
0.374 Ford Capri Mk III 1978
0.372 Ferrari F50 1996
0.37 BMW Z3 M coupe 1999
0.37 Jaguar XJ (X300/X308)
0.37 Renault Twingo
0.37 Volkswagen Tiguan 2008
0.36 Cadillac Escalade hybrid 2008
0.36 Cadillac Fleetwood 1996
0.36 Citroën CX (named after the term for Cd) 1974
0.36 Citroën DS 1955
0.36 Chrysler Sebring 1996
0.36 Ferrari Testarossa 1986
0.36 Ford Mustang 1999
0.36 Honda Civic 2001
0.36 Opel GT 1969
0.36 Subaru Impreza WRX [7] 2010
0.355 NSU Ro 80 1967
0.35 Aston Martin Vanquish 2004
0.35 BMW Z4 M coupe 2006
0.35 Dodge Viper GTS 1996
0.35 Jaguar XKR 2005
0.35 Lexus GX 2010
0.35 Lexus RX 2003-2009
0.35 MINI Cooper 2008
0.35 Nissan Cube 2009
0.35 SSC Ultimate Aero 2007-Present
0.35 Tesla Roadster[8] 2008
0.35 Toyota MR-2 1998
0.35 Toyota Sequoia 2007
0.35 Volvo 940 (sedan) 1990
0.35 Renault Clio (Mk 2) 2002 [9]
0.348 Toyota Celica Supra (Mk 2) 1982 [10]
0.342 Toyota Celica (Liftback Model) 1982
0.34 Subaru Impreza WRX (4 Door) 2009 [11]
0.34 Aston Martin DB9 2004
0.34 Chevrolet Caprice 1994
0.34 Chevrolet Tahoe hybrid 2008
0.34 Ferrari F40 1987
0.34 Ferrari 360 Modena 1999
0.34 Ferrari F430 F1 2004
0.34 Ford Sierra 1982
0.34 Ford Puma 1997
0.34 Honda Prelude 1988
0.34 Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Down) 2001
0.34 Peugeot 106 1991
0.34 Toyota Supra (with factory 3 piece turbo wing) 1989-1990
0.338 Chevrolet Camaro 1995
0.33 Audi A3 2006
0.33 Citroën SM 1970
0.33 Dodge Charger 2006
0.33 Ford Crown Victoria 1992
0.33 Ford Fusion 2010 [12]
0.33 Honda Accord Sedan 2002
0.33 Lamborghini Murcielago 2001
0.33 Lexus RX 2009
0.33 Mazda RX-7 FC3C 1987
0.33 Peugeot 206 1998
0.33 Peugeot 309 1986
0.33 Renault Modus 2004
0.33 Subaru Impreza WRX STi 2004
0.33 Toyota Supra (without wing) 1989-1990
0.324 Cobalt SS Supercharged 2005
0.32 Volkswagen Golf MK3 1991
0.32 AMC Pacer 1975-1980
0.32 Buick Riviera 1995
0.32 Dodge Avenger 1995
0.32 Honda Accord Coupe 2002
0.32 Honda NSX 1990
0.32 Mazdaspeed3 2007
0.32 McLaren F1 1992
0.32 Mercedes-Benz 190E 2.5-16/2.3-16
0.32 Nissan 300ZX 1989
0.32 Nissan Maxima 1997
0.32 Porsche 997 GT2
0.32 Peugeot 406 1995
0.32 Peugeot 806 1994
0.32 Scion xB 2008
0.32 Suzuki Swift 1991
0.32 Toyota Celica 1994
0.32 Toyota Supra (N/A with wing and turbo models) 1993
0.32 Toyota Supra (with factory turbo wing) 1987-1988
0.32 Volkswagen GTI Mk V 2006
Production cars (continued)
Cd Automobile Year
0.31 Audi A4 B5 1995
0.31 BMW 7-series 2009
0.31 Buick Park Avenue 1996
0.31 Cadillac CTS-V 2005
0.31 Chevrolet C6 Corvette Z06
0.31 Citroën AX 1986
0.31 Citroën GS 1970
0.31 Eagle Vision 1995
0.31 Ford Falcon 1995
0.31 Holden Commodore 1998
0.31 Honda Civic (Sedan) 2006
0.31 Kia Rio (Sedan) 2001[13]
0.310 Lamborghini Diablo 1990
0.31 Lexus LFA
(wing retracted)		 2010
0.31 Mazda RX-7 FC3S 1986
0.31 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2) 1993
0.31 Mazda RX-8 2004
0.31 Nissan Tiida / Versa 2004
0.31 Peugeot 307 2001
0.31 Porsche 997 Turbo/GT3 2006
0.31 Renault 25 1984
0.31 Saab Sonett III 1970
0.31 Saturn Sc2 2001
0.31 Scion xA 2004
0.31 Toyota Avalon 1995-2000
0.31 Toyota RAV4 2006
0.31 Toyota Supra (N/A; without factory wing) 1993
0.31 Volkswagen GTI Mk IV 1997
0.30 Honda NSX 2002
0.30 Audi 100 1983
0.30 Honda Accord Sedan 2003, 2005-2007
0.30 Honda CRX DX/Si [14] 1988
0.30 Honda Odyssey 2005
0.30 Hyundai Sonata 2006
0.30 Koenigsegg CCX 2006
0.30 Mitsubishi Eclipse 2000
0.30 Nissan 180SX 1989
0.30 Nissan 300ZX 1983
0.30 Nissan 350Z Coupe Base and Enthusiast models 2003-2008
0.30 Nissan 370Z Coupe
(0.29 with sport package)		 2009 [15]
0.30 Renault 19 16V 1991
0.30 Saab 92 1947
0.30 Toyota Sienna 2003-2009
0.295 Ford Falcon 1998
0.291 Toyota Avalon 2005
0.29 Alfa Romeo 155 1992
0.29 BMW 8-Series 1989
0.29 Chevrolet Corvette 2005
0.29 Chevrolet Corvette C5 Z06 2002
0.29 Daewoo Espero 1990
0.29 Dodge Charger Daytona 1969
0.29 Eagle Talon 1990s [2]
0.29 Ford Escape 2010 [16]
0.29 Honda Accord Hybrid 2005, 2007
0.29 Honda Accord Coupe 2003, 2005-2007
0.29 Honda CRX HF [14] 1988
0.29 Infiniti G35 Sedan 2008
0.29 Lancia Dedra 1990
0.29 Lexus LS 400 1990
0.29 Lotus Elite 1958
0.29 Lotus Europa 1966
0.29 Mazda Millenia 1995
0.29 Mazda RX-7 FC3S Aero Package 1986
0.29 Mazda 3 2010
0.29 Mazda RX-7 FD 1993
0.29 Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Up) 2001
0.29 Mercedes-Benz W203 C-Class Coupe 2001
0.29 Nissan 350Z Coupe Track and Grand Touring 2007-2008
0.29 Nissan Versa 2007-2008
0.29 Peugeot 308 2007
0.29 Peugeot 407 2004
0.29 Peugeot 607 1999
0.29 Porsche Boxster 2005
0.29 Subaru XT 1985
0.29 Subaru SVX 1992
0.29 Toyota Camry 1996-2001
0.29 Toyota Prius 2001
0.286 Chevrolet Corvette C6 2006
0.28 Citroën XM 1989
0.28 Citroën C4 2004
0.28 Lexus IS 2006
0.28 Mitsubishi Diamante 1995
0.28 Porsche 997 Carrera
(with optional automatic spoiler, PDK transmission 0.30)		 2004
0.28 Renault 25 TS 1984
0.28 Rumpler-Tropfenwagen 1921
0.28 Saab 9-3 2003
0.28 Toyota Camry / Lexus ES 2001
0.28 Opel Astra Coupe Turbo 2003
0.27 Mazda Mazda6 2009
0.27 Honda Civic Hybrid 2006
0.27 Hyundai Genesis 2009
0.27 Infiniti G35 Coupe
(0.26 with "aero package")		 2003-2007
0.27 Lexus GS 2005
0.27 Mazda6 (sedan and hatchback) [17] 2008
0.27 Mercedes-Benz W203 C-Class Sedan 2001
0.27 Nissan GT-R 2008
0.27 Toyota Camry Hybrid 2007
0.27 Tucker Torpedo 1948
0.27 Volkswagen Passat B5 (sedan) 1997
0.27 Mercedes-Benz S Class
(0.268 with Sport Package)		 2000-2005
0.27 Opel Insignia 2008-present
0.26 BMW E90 (0.26-0.30) 2009 [18]
0.26 Chevrolet Volt 2010
0.26 Hotchkiss Gregoire[citation needed] 1951
0.26 Lexus LS 430
(0.25 with air suspension)		 2001-2006
0.26 Lexus LS 460 2006
0.26 Mercedes-Benz W221 S-Class 2006
0.26 Opel Calibra
(8 valve version)		 1989
0.26 Toyota Prius 2004-2009
0.25 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 2001
0.25 Honda Insight 1999, 2003, 2005
0.25 Toyota Prius 2010
0.24 Mercedes E-class coupe
(0.25 sedan)		 2009
0.212 Tatra T77 1935
0.195 General Motors EV1 1996
Concept/experimental cars
Cd Automobile Year
0.301 Chevrolet Volt (0.43 w/ a 30% reduction) 2010
0.27 Avion[19] 1986
0.26 Alfa Romeo Disco Volante 1952
0.25 Dymaxion Car 1933
0.25 SmILE (an experimental car) 1996
0.22 Citroën ECO 2000 Concept 1981[20]
0.20 Loremo Concept 2006
2009 (Planned production)
0.20 Opel Eco Speedster Concept 2003
0.19 Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7 Concept 1954
0.19 Dodge Intrepid ESX Concept 1995
0.19 Mercedes-Benz Bionic Concept[21](based on the boxfish) 2005
0.168 Daihatsu UFE-III Concept 2005[22]
0.16 General Motors Precept Concept (5 seats) 2000
0.159 Volkswagen 1-litre car Concept 2002
2010 (Planned production)
0.15 Aptera Motors 2e 2009 (Planned production)
0.14 Fiat Turbina Concept 1954
0.137 Ford Probe V Concept 1985
0.125 Sunraycer, solar race car 1987
0.12 Reflex 1000, solar cycle 1996[23]
0.117 Summers Brothers Goldenrod Bonneville race car 1965
0.08 Fortis Saxonia (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept 2007
0.075 PAC-Car II (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept 2005
0.07 Nuna, World Solar Challenge winner 2001-2007

[edit] CdA

While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The combination of drag coefficient and area is CdA (or CxA), a multiplication of the Cd value by the area.

In aerodynamics, the product of some reference area (such as cross-sectional area, total surface area, or similar) and the drag coefficient is called drag area. In 2003, Car and Driver adapted this metric and adopted it as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles. Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8.50 sq ft (0.790 m2). Reported drag area ranges from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.10 sq ft (0.474 m2) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.3 sq ft (2.44 m2). The drag area of a bicycle is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m2).[24]

Automobile examples of CdA ft² are shown below: [25]

CdA (ft²) Automobile model
2.50 sq ft (0.232 m2) 1986 Twike [26]
2.69 sq ft (0.250 m2) 2009 Loremo
3.95 sq ft (0.367 m2) 1996 GM EV1
5.10 sq ft (0.474 m2) 1999 Honda Insight
5.40 sq ft (0.502 m2) 1989 Opel Calibra
5.71 sq ft (0.530 m2) 1990 Honda CR-X Si
5.74 sq ft (0.533 m2) 2002 Acura NSX
5.76 sq ft (0.535 m2) 1968 Toyota 2000GT
5.80 sq ft (0.539 m2) 1986 Toyota MR2
5.81 sq ft (0.540 m2) 1989 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSX
5.86 sq ft (0.544 m2) 2001 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 3L
5.88 sq ft (0.546 m2) 1990 Nissan 240SX hatchback / 200SX / 180SX
5.92 sq ft (0.550 m2) 1994 Porsche 911 Speedster
5.95 sq ft (0.553 m2) 1990 Mazda RX7
6.00 sq ft (0.557 m2) 1970 Lamborghini Miura
6.08 sq ft (0.565 m2) 2008 Nissan GTR
6.13 sq ft (0.569 m2) 1991 Acura NSX
6.17 sq ft (0.573 m2) 1995 Lamborghini Diablo
6.24 sq ft (0.580 m2) 2004 Toyota Prius
6.27 sq ft (0.583 m2) 1986 Porsche 911 Carrera
6.27 sq ft (0.583 m2) 1992 Chevrolet Corvette
6.35 sq ft (0.590 m2) 1999 Lotus Elise
6.40 sq ft (0.595 m2) 1990 Lotus Esprit
6.54 sq ft (0.608 m2) 1991 Saturn Sports Coupe
6.57 sq ft (0.610 m2) 1985 Chevrolet Corvette
6.63 sq ft (0.616 m2) 2001 Audi A2
6.66 sq ft (0.619 m2) 1996 Citroën Saxo
6.77 sq ft (0.629 m2) 1995 BMW M3
6.79 sq ft (0.631 m2) 1993 Toyota Corolla DX
6.80 sq ft (0.632 m2) 2007 BMW 335i Coupe
6.81 sq ft (0.633 m2) 1991 Subaru Legacy
6.90 sq ft (0.641 m2) 1993 Saturn Wagon
6.93 sq ft (0.644 m2) 1982 Delorean DMC-12
6.96 sq ft (0.647 m2) 1988 Porsche 944 S
6.96 sq ft (0.647 m2) 1995 Chevrolet Lumina LS
7.02 sq ft (0.652 m2) 1992 BMW 325I
7.04 sq ft (0.654 m2) 1991 Honda Civic EX
7.10 sq ft (0.660 m2) 1995 Saab 900
7.14 sq ft (0.663 m2) 1995 Subaru Legacy L
7.34 sq ft (0.682 m2) 2001 Honda Civic
7.39 sq ft (0.687 m2) 1994 Honda Accord EX
7.48 sq ft (0.695 m2) 1993 Chevrolet Camaro Z28
7.57 sq ft (0.703 m2) 1992 Toyota Camry
7.69 sq ft (0.714 m2) 1994 Chrysler LHS
7.72 sq ft (0.717 m2) 1993 Subaru Impreza
8.02 sq ft (0.745 m2) 2005 Bugatti Veyron
8.70 sq ft (0.808 m2) 1990 Volvo 740 Turbo
8.70 sq ft (0.808 m2) 1992 Ford Crown Victoria
8.71 sq ft (0.809 m2) 1991 Buick LeSabre Limited
9.54 sq ft (0.886 m2) 1992 Chevrolet Caprice Wagon
10.7 sq ft (0.99 m2) 1992 Chevrolet Blazer
11.6 sq ft (1.08 m2) 2005 Ford Escape Hybrid
11.7 sq ft (1.09 m2) 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee
16.8 sq ft (1.56 m2) 2006 Hummer H3
17.4 sq ft (1.62 m2) 1995 Land Rover Discovery
26.5 sq ft (2.46 m2) 2003 Hummer H2

[edit] Selected photographs

2.1 - a smooth brick having twice drag coefficient twice a flat edgy plate seems to be the ideal parachute shape

0.7 to 1.1 - typical values for a Formula 1 car

0.9 -a typical bicycle plus cyclist

0.7 - Caterham Seven

at least 0.6 - a typical truck

0.57 - Hummer H2, 2003

0.51 - Citroën 2CV due to the mudguard, despite the round roof

0.48 - Volkswagen Beetle due to vertical headlights, wider tires and mudguard

0.425 - Duple 425 coach

0.42 - Lamborghini Countach, 1974

0.42 - Triumph Spitfire Mk IV, 1971-1980

0.38 - Volkswagen Beetle original design

0.38 - Mazda Miata, 1989

0.38 - Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph, 1998 [1]

0.374 - Ford Capri Mk III, 1978-1986

0.372 - Ferrari F50, 1996 high drag due to aerodynamic aids and cooling ducts.

0.36 - Citroën DS, 1955, relative high drag despite the aerodynamic headlights, due to the rough windshield-roof transition.

0.36 - Ferrari Testarossa, 1986

0.36 - Honda Civic, 2001

0.36 - Citroën CX, 1974 (the car was named after the term for drag coefficient)

0.355 - NSU Ro 80, 1967 despite the edgy front

0.35, Audi TT, 1998 [2] much drag despite smooth shape, the similar 2007 version has 0.30 [3]

0.35 - Dodge Viper GTS

0.342 Pontiac Trans Am 1982 [4]

0.34 - Ford Sierra, 1982, at least one combi in this gallery! The passat 2003, has 0.32

0.34 - Ferrari F40, 1987

0.338 - Chevrolet Camaro, 1995

0.33 - Citroën SM, 1970 low drag despite edgy front

0.32 - Buick Riviera, 1995

0.31 - Citroën AX, 1986 low drag due to down pulled hood

0.31 - Citroën GS, 1970

0.31 - Renault 25, 1984

0.31 - Saab Sonett III, 1970

0.30 - Audi 100, 1983 smooth nose to flow transition

0.30 - BMW E90, 2006

0.30 - Porsche 996, 1997

0.30 - Saab 92, 1947 - developed using wind tunnel testing

0.29 - Honda CRX HF 1988

0.29 - Subaru XT, 1985

0.29 - Lancia Dedra, 1990-1998

0.29 - Lotus Elite, 1958

0.28 - Rumpler Tropfenwagen, 1921 thin tires have low aerodynamic drag

0.28 - Toyota Camry and sister model Lexus ES, 2005

0.28 - Porsche 997, 2004, and that with the wide tires

0.28 - Renault 25 TS, 1984, low drag despite its overall edgy shape

0.28 - Saab 9-3, 2003

0.28 - Audi A2, 1999 [5]. Note the Kammback shape.

0.28 - Chevrolet Corvette Z06, 2006

0.27 - Infiniti G35, 2002 (0.26 with "aero package")

0.27 - Toyota Camry Hybrid, 2007

0.26 - Mercedes-Benz W221 S-Class, 2006, low drag despite wheelarches an a large grill and a Mercedes sign in the airflow

0.26 - Lexus LS 430, 2001 (0.25 with air suspension)

0.26 - Toyota Prius, 2004

0.26 - Vauxhall Calibra, 1989 even the transition from the bumpers to the head light is smooth

0.25 - Audi A2 1.2 TDI, 2001, low drag despite wheelarches, due to down pulled hood and fastback

0.25 - Honda Insight, 1999, low drag due to down pulled hood,fastback and wheel fairings

0.212 - Tatra T77 a, 1935, low drag due to a tail and a smooth underbody and despite an edgy windscreen-roof transition.

0.195 - General Motors EV1 (electric), 1996, low drag due to having wheel fairings, relative central head lights, submerged wiper

0.15 - Aptera Motors Typ-1 (2008 planned) having a tail, wheel fairings, smooth underbody, aerodynamic suspension

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ "The Mayfield Homepage - Coefficient of Drag for Selected Vehicles". Mayfco.com. http://www.mayfco.com/dragcd~1.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  2. ^ "Aero Testing - Part 3". AutoSpeed. http://autospeed.com/cms/A_108675/article.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  3. ^ "Subaru Forester specs available". CarsDirect. http://www.carsdirect.com/research/specs?cat=all&make=SU&modelid=223&acode=USC00SUS041A0&year=null. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  4. ^ "Technique of the VW Beetle". Maggiolinoweb.it. http://www.maggiolinoweb.it/technique.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  5. ^ Evworld Feature: Giving The New Beetle Wings:Vw | Rogers | Beetle | Wing | Drag | Porsche | Volkswagen | Thiokol | Utah | Fuel | Economy | Biodiesel | Diesel | Aerodynamics
  6. ^ - Aero Testing - Part 3
  7. ^ "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. http://subaru.ca/SubaruData.aspx?WebPageID=13725&WebSiteID=282&CompareType=S&CarIds=430&Category=AllSpecCategory. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  8. ^ Ramsey, Jonathon (2009-03-26). "Tesla Model S: $50,000 EV sedan seats seven, 300-mile range, 0-60 in 5.5s" (in English). autobloggreen. http://www.autobloggreen.com/2009/03/26/tesla-model-s-50-000-ev-sedan-seats-seven-300-mile-range-0-6/. Retrieved 2009-04-12. 
  9. ^ "2002 Renault Clio II 1.5 dCi 80 technical specifications and data - 3 door 1.5 litre (1461 cc) S4 79.1 PS - Carfolio.com car specifications pages". Carfolio.com. http://www.carfolio.com/specifications/models/car/?car=112816. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  10. ^ http://www.celicasupra.com/brochures/82binder.pdf
  11. ^ "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. http://subaru.ca/SubaruData.aspx?WebPageID=13725&WebSiteID=282&CompareType=S&CarIds=422&Category=AllSpecCategory. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  12. ^ "Ford Fusion specs available". CarsDirect. http://www.carsdirect.com/research/specs?cat=6&make=FO&modelid=583&acode=USC00FOC201A0&year=2010. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  13. ^ http://www.internetautoguide.com/car-specifications/09-int/2001/kia/rio/index.html
  14. ^ a b gtmash. "Honda Civic CRX - Car Cutaway - Modern Racer - Features". Modern Racer. http://www.modernracer.com/features/carcutawayhondaciviccrx.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  15. ^ "2009 Nissan 370Z Coupe Specs". Nissan USA. 2009-08-31. http://www.nissanusa.com/zcoupe/specifications.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  16. ^ [www.all-about-car-selection.com/ford-escape-hybrid.html]
  17. ^ http://www.mazda.de/NR/rdonlyres/4AD941AC-2043-479A-92AA-B3E9F3F03DAC/0/Mazda6_Broschuere.pdf
  18. ^ Interone Worldwide GmbH (2008-06-17). "BMW 3 Series Sedan : Technical data". Bmw.com. http://www.bmw.com/com/en/newvehicles/3series/sedan/2008/allfacts/engine/technical_data.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  19. ^ Avion specs, vehicle set the 1986 Guinness World Record for fuel efficiency at 103.7 mpg.
  20. ^ 50 000 km avec une Citroën Ax diesel, mon avis d'utilisateur ainsi que son coût kilométrique réel
  21. ^ Mercedes Bionic Concept Car
  22. ^ Daihatsu UFE-III | Concept Cars
  23. ^ D & H Enterprises, composites and fibreglass technology
  24. ^ (a bicycle's lower frontal area is offset by a higher drag coefficient)
  25. ^ The Mayfield Company Homepage - Coefficient of Drag Tables and Curves
  26. ^ Program: hpvplot (updated 11/12/07)

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_drag_coefficient"