Battle of Xiaoting

"Battle of Yiling" redirects here. For the battle after the Battle of Red Cliffs, see Battle of Yiling (208).

Battle of Xiaoting
Part of the Three Kingdoms period
Date July 221 – July 222 CE Location Xiaoting (north of present-day Yidu, Hubei) and Yiling (southeast of present-day Yichang, Hubei) Result Decisive Eastern Wu victory
Belligerents
Eastern Wu	Shu Han, Tribal people in Wuling
Commanders and leaders
Lu Xun	Liu Bei, Shamoke
Strength
50,000 - 60,000	~100,000 - 120,000
Casualties and losses
Unknown	80,000

Battle of Xiaoting
Traditional Chinese	猇亭之戰
Simplified Chinese	猇亭之战
Transcriptions Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiāotíng Zhī Zhàn
Battle of Yiling
Traditional Chinese	夷陵之戰
Simplified Chinese	夷陵之战
Transcriptions Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Yílíng Zhī Zhàn

The Battle of Xiaoting, also known as the Battle of Yiling and the Battle of Yiling and Xiaoting, was fought between the states of Eastern Wu and Shu Han in 222 during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The battle was most significant for the decisive Wu victory, which halted the Shu invasion and preceded the death of Shu's emperor Liu Bei in Baidicheng.

Background

Guan Yu's death and the fall of Jing Province

Further information: Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province

In 219, Sun Quan's general Lü Meng invaded and annexed Liu Bei's territory in Jing Province. Guan Yu, the general appointed by Liu Bei to defend Jing Province, was captured after his defeat and executed on Sun Quan's order. Liu Bei was enraged by the sudden attack because Sun Quan was formerly his ally, and also due to his close relationship with Guan Yu.

In 220, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour, effectively ending the Han Dynasty and starting the state of Cao Wei. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself Emperor of Shu Han in Yi Province (covering the Sichuan Basin). Sun Quan had not declared himself emperor yet then, and his state was known as Eastern Wu. In 221, Liu Bei planned to attack Wu to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu. However, many of his subjects, including Zhao Yun, opposed his decision, but Liu Bei ignored them.

Zhang Fei's death

As Liu Bei mobilized his troops in preparation for the attack on Wu, another of his generals, Zhang Fei, was assassinated by his subordinates Fan Qiang and Zhang Da. Zhang Fei was growing impatient with the preparations for war, so he imposed strict deadlines on Fan Qiang and Zhang Da, but his subordinates failed to meet the time limit. Zhang Fei disparaged them before warning them that they would be executed under military law if they foundered again. Out of fear, Fan Qiang and Zhang Da killed Zhang Fei while he was asleep, cut off his head, and defected to Eastern Wu.

Liu Bei was overwhelmed with grief over the loss of two of his generals who had accompanied since the beginning of his military career. Zhang Fei's death hardened his decision to attack Wu for revenge. Again, many Shu officials attempted to dissuade Liu Bei from attacking Wu but Liu dismissed their advice. Eventually, Liu Bei departed from his capital Chengdu with a large army and advanced towards Jing Province on both land and water (along the Yangtze River). He left his chancellor Zhuge Liang and crown prince Liu Shan to defend Chengdu.

The battle

First stage

Wu defeats

Initially, Wu forces underestimated the enemy's tenacity due to their superiority in numbers. As the advancing Shu army captured regions including Zigui, Wu County, Mount Ba and Mount Xing, Wu forces that set out from their fortifications to engage the enemy were nearly all annihilated. The initial defeat made Sun Quan decide to adopt Lu Xun's strategy and appoint Lu as Grand Viceroy (de facto commander-in-chief of Sun Quan's forces).

Wu forces realised that the Shu troops were better versed in warfare in mountainous terrain as they were mostly ground troops. Thus, they decided to abandon their defenses at certain territories and retreat to vital positions and defend them instead. After that, they would hold on to those positions and wait for an opportunity to launch a counterattack.

Retreat and stalemates

In January, Shu naval forces led by Wu Ban and Chen Shi captured Yiling. Liu Bei built his headquarters in Zigui but did not stay there for long as his forces continued to make progress and push further into the heartland of Wu. In February, the Shu vanguard broke through enemy lines at Yidao and defeated the Wu defenders in engagement outside the city. The Wu general Sun Huan, who was guarding Yidao, retreated with his remaining troops into the city and held on to their positions until a stalemate was reached.

Meanwhile, the main Shu force led by Liu Bei reached Xiaoting and was unable to push any further as Wu forces led by Lu Xun held on firmly to their positions. With no further retreat by Wu forces, both sides reached at stalemate at Xiaoting.

Falling morale of the Shu army

As Shu troops ventured further into Wu territory, their supply lines from Chengdu lengthened and supplies took longer to arrive. They also became gradually weary and tired from battle. The terrain became flatter and the Shu infantry lost its advantage in mountainous terrain. Liu Bei deployed his troops in over 50 camps along the 350 km line from Wuxia to Yiling on the southern bank of the Yangtze River. His vanguard army was isolated 150 km away at Yidao. Wu forces thought that it was the best time to launch their counterattack but Lu Xun ordered them to hold on.

By March, most of the Wu forces have evacuated from mountainous terrain and held up in their fortifications on flat terrain. Summer soon arrived and the sweltering heat killed several plants and shrubs. Liu Bei's forces camped at Yiling were directly next to a forest so the heat became even more unbearable. Some Shu soldiers were affected by heatstroke. By then, the Shu army's morale had fallen significantly as compared to at the start of the campaign, as the troops were now weary and suffering from the intense heat.

Liu Bei planned an ambush which turned out to be a failure. He deployed 8,000 elite troops to lie in ambush in nearby valleys and sent Wu Ban to lead a weaker force to challenge and lure Wu forces out of their fortifications into the ambush. However, Lu Xun saw through Liu Bei's ruse and ordered his troops to ignore taunts from the enemy. It was said that he even ordered his troops to put wax into their ears. The failure of the ambush caused the Shu army's morale to plummet even lower.

Second stage

Burning of the camps

Shu troops were suffering from the summer heat as the stalemate, which began in March, continued to progress. Liu Bei decided to shift his camp into the nearby forest for shade and shelter from the heat even though his adviser Ma Liang opposed his decision.

In July, Lu Xun knew that the time was ripe for the counterattack. He ordered saboteurs to encircle Liu Bei's camp by travelling on water with the navy. Once they were behind Liu Bei's camp at Yiling, the saboteurs set the camp on fire. The woods gradually became a fiery inferno within hours as wildfires fueled by dead plants and dry air erupted everywhere. As Shu soldiers rushed towards the Yangtze River for water to put out the fires, Wu archers lying in ambush shot them down. Shu forces attempted a counterattack, but Wu forces led by Pan Zhang broke through the lines they reformed and made retaliation impossible.

Shu retreat

The Shu navy fared slightly better by barely managing an orderly retreat. Cheng Ji, a Shu official, personally led a group of men to cover the navy as it withdrew. Wu marine forces caught up with the rear guard of the Shu navy and engaged in battle. Cheng Ji and his men were surrounded by the Wu vanguard force but they managed to hold on by sinking the smaller enemy boats. However, they were eventually outnumbered when the bulk of the Wu navy arrived and were killed.

Shu forces lost over 40 of their original 50 camps on the 350 km line to a rockslide at the Ma'an Hills. Liu Bei attempted to reform and regroup his remaining forces at the hills to make a last stand. However, his troops were split up before they could regroup as one. Wu general Zhu Ran led an army of 5,000 to disrupt the lines and prevent Liu Bei from reforming. Lu Xun personally led an attack on Shu forces together with Xu Sheng and Han Dang, and succeeded in preventing Liu Bei from making his last stand. The entire Shu army was nearly wiped out at Ma'an Hills.

Liu Bei's escape and death

The remaining camps of the Shu army were set ablaze by retreating Shu soldiers to hinder Wu forces' pursuit. Meanwhile, the isolated Shu vanguard force at Yidao was also completely destroyed by Wu forces. Huang Quan managed to escape together with his deputy Pang Lin and 318 horsemen to the northern bank of the Yangtze River, where they were cut off from the rest of the Shu army, and eventually they decided to surrender to Wei.

Liu Bei fled to Zigui with Wu forces hot on his heels and the demoralised Shu troops were unable to hold their ground and kept retreating. During the withdrawal, Wang Fu, the Shu official in charge of Jing Province, was killed in the ensuing battle, but his death bought time for Liu Bei to continue retreating. Xiang Chong, who was stationed at Jing Province, managed to regroup the surviving Shu troops and lead them on an orderly retreat without them suffering any further great losses.

Xiang Chong also led Liu Bei safely to Yufu (present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing) and managed to repel any further attacks by pursuing enemy forces. Liu Bei was impressed with Xiang Chong and promoted him to the rank of viceroy. Eventually, reinforcements from Jiangzhou led by Zhao Yun arrived and a stalemate was reached before Wu forces decided to retreat, thus ending their counterattack. Of all the Shu commanders who participated in the battle, most of them were killed and only naval commanders Wu Ban and Chen Shi managed to return safely.

Liu Bei died a year later in the spring of 223 at Baidicheng from dysentery. He was succeeded by his crown prince Liu Shan, with chancellor Zhuge Liang and general Li Yan serving as regents.

Aftermath

The Battle of Xiaoting sealed the fate of Shu as a large portion of its armed forces were destroyed in the battle. Ever since then, Shu's military was not as powerful as it once was.^{[citation needed]} After Liu Bei's death, Shu was ruled by chancellor-regent Zhuge Liang on behalf of the new emperor Liu Shan. Zhuge Liang sought to make peace with Wu and restore their alliance. This was achieved in 223.

On the other hand, the Battle of Xiaoting allowed Wu to establish its control over Jing Province after the victory. Lu Xun rose to fame for his role in the battle, and his victory marked the beginning of an illustrious career that led to his appointment as chancellor of Wu more than 20 years after the battle.

Order of battle

Shu forces

• Liu Bei, Emperor of Shu
  • Wu Ban, defeated Li Yi and Liu E in Wu (巫), garrisoned a naval force at Yiling (彝陵) on the western bank of the Yangtze River
  •  † Feng Xi, defeated Li Yi and Liu E in Wu, served as overall commander of the land forces
  •  † Zhang Nan (張南), served as commander of the vanguard
  • Chen Shi, garrisoned a naval force at Yidao (彝道) on the western bank of the Yangtze River
  •  † Palace Attendant (侍中) Ma Liang
  • General of the Standard (牙門將) Xiang Chong (向寵), defeated at Zigui (秭歸)
  • Administrator of Yidu (宜都太守) Liao Hua, served as a detachment commander (別督)
  •  † Wang Fu, killed in action at Zigui (秭歸)
  • Li Chao (李朝)
  •  † Fu Rong, killed in action while covering the Shu army's retreat
  •  † Cheng Ji (程畿), killed in action during the Shu army's retreat
  • Fu Kuang (輔匡), served as a detachment commander (別督)
  • Zhao Rong (趙融), served as a detachment commander (別督)
  •   Du Lu (杜路), surrendered to Wu
  •   Liu Ning (劉寧), surrendered to Wu

• General Who Guards the North (鎮北將軍) Huang Quan, oversaw all the forces stationed north of the Yangtze River, surrendered to Wei
  • Assistant Officer in Jing Province's Headquarters Office (荊州治中從事) Pang Lin (龐林), Pang Tong's younger brother, surrendered to Wei together with Huang Quan

•  † Shamoke, a tribal king allied with Shu

• Zhao Yun, remained behind to defend Jiangzhou (江州)

• Zhang Fei, supposed to lead a force from Langzhong (閬中) to rendezvous with Liu Bei in Jiangzhou (江州), but was killed by his subordinates Zhang Da and Fan Qiang

Wu forces

• King of Wu (吳王) Sun Quan, stationed in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei)

• Right Protector of the Army / General Who Guards the West (右護軍 / 鎮西將軍) Lu Xun, defended Yiling (彝陵) before being appointed by Sun Quan as Grand Viceroy (大都督)
  • General of Martial Brightness (昭武將軍) Zhu Ran, led 5,000 troops to defend Yidu (宜都) together with Lu Xun, later defeated the Shu army's vanguard and blocked its return route
  • General Who Inspires Might (振威將軍) Pan Zhang, defended Yiling (彝陵) together with Lu Xun, his men killed Feng Xi later during the Wu counterattack
  • Lieutenant General / Administrator of Yongchang (偏將軍 / 永昌太守) Han Dang, attacked and defeated Shu forces at Yidu (宜都)
  • Song Qian, attacked and seized five Shu garrisons and killed their defending officers
  • General Who Builds Loyalty (建忠將軍) Luo Tong, defeated the Shu army at Yidu (宜都) together with Lu Xun
  • Xu Sheng, attacked and seized some Shu garrisons when Liu Bei retreated west
  • Jiang Yi (蔣壹), Jiang Qin's son

• General Who Pacifies the East (安東將軍) Sun Huan, besieged by Liu Bei in Yidao (夷道) but was saved by Lu Xun
  • Xianyu Dan (鮮于丹)
  • Li Yi (李異), garrisoned at Wu (巫) and Zigui (秭歸), directly faced the Shu army at Nanshan (南山)
  • Liu E (劉阿), garrisoned at Wu and Zigui, directly faced the Shu army at Nanshan

Size of armies

Liu Bei personally led the bulk of Shu's army out for the campaign, with his force amounting to more than 100,000. He was supported by his allies, the tribes along the five creeks further south of Jing Province, amongst them, the strongest was the Wuling tribal king Shamoke, who commanded warriors numbering tens of thousands; while the forces of Wu was anticipating a probable invasion from the state of Wei, and had the army split: the Wu forces in Xiaoting amounted to about 50,000.

In fiction

See also: List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The following are some fictional events related to the battle mentioned in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

• In the novel Sun Quan attempted to make peace with Liu Bei as the Shu army approached by sending the defectors from Shu (Fu Shiren, Mi Fang, Fan Qiang and Zhang Da) back to Liu Bei's side. Fu Shiren and Mi Fang - who caused Guan Yu to lose Jing Province - were killed by Guan Xing, while Fan Qiang and Zhang Da - who assassinated Zhang Fei - were executed by Zhang Bao.

• In the novel Gan Ning was ill with dysentery at the time of the battle but he still participated. He was hit in the head by an arrow fired by Shamoke and died from his wound later. The time and cause of his death are not mentioned in his official biography in Records of Three Kingdoms.

• The burning of the Shu camps was described as "burning of the linked camps for 700 li" (火燒聯營七百里) in the novel. In the battle the camps were not as closely linked as described in fiction, and 700 li is an exaggerated approximation of the distance the fires spread.

• In the novel Zhu Ran was slain by Zhao Yun while pursuing Liu Bei during the Shu retreat. Zhao Yun's official biography in Records of Three Kingdoms stated that he was stationed in Jiangzhou (江州) and did not participate in the battle.

• In the novel Pan Zhang, who captured Guan Yu, was killed by Guan Xing. Records of Three Kingdoms did not mention anything about his involvement in the battle, and stated that he served as a civil official in Shu. Pan Zhang's official biography also stated that Pan died of illness.

• In the novel Ma Zhong was killed by Mi Fang prior to the battle. In history Mi Fang remained in Wu after his defection and did not return to Shu.

• In the novel Cheng Ji (程畿) committed suicide after being cornered by Wu soldiers during the Shu army's retreat, but Records of Three Kingdoms simply described that he was killed in action.

• In the novel Huang Zhong was killed by an arrow fired by Ma Zhong but his official biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that he died in 220, about a year before the battle.

• In the novel both Zhuge Liang and Zhao Yun strongly opposed Liu Bei's decision to go to war with Sun Quan but Records of Three Kingdoms only mentioned Zhao Yun. In the novel Liu Bei sent a map of the deployment of his camps to Zhuge Liang in Chengdu, and Zhuge was furious and shocked when he saw the map. He even remarked that the person who suggested to Liu Bei to lay out the camps in that manner ought to be executed.

• In the novel Lu Xun ventured into Zhuge Liang's Stone Sentinel Maze while pursuing the retreating Shu army. He was trapped inside and eventually Huang Chengyan guided him out. After his escape, Lu Xun acknowledged that he could never better Zhuge Liang in terms of intelligence, and then ordered a withdrawal because he feared that Wei might take advantage of the situation to attack Wu.

Modern references

The battle is featured as a playable stage in Koei's video game series Dynasty Warriors, in which it is known as the "Battle of Yi Ling".

References

• Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms.
• Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian.
• Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms.