Blackberry

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This article is about the fruit. For the smartphone and its manufacturer, see BlackBerry and BlackBerry (company). For other uses, see Blackberry (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with black raspberry.
Blackberry
Ripe, ripening and unripe blackberries on the same plant

Rubus fruticosus Luc Viatour.JPG
Blackberry flower.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Subgenus: Rubus (formerly Eubatus)
Species

And hundreds more microspecies
(the subgenus also includes the dewberries)

The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the Rubus genus in the Rosaceae family, hybrids among these species within the Rubus subgenus, as well as hybrids between the Rubus and Idaeobatus subgenera. What distinguishes blackberries from its raspberry relatives is whether the torus (receptacle) picks with the fruit, a blackberry, or remains on the plant when picked leaving a hole in the fruit, a raspberry. The term 'bramble', a word meaning any impenetrable scrub, has traditionally been applied specifically to the blackberry or its products,[1] though in the United States it applies to all members of the Rubus genus. In the western US, the term caneberry is used to refer to blackberries and raspberries as a group rather than the term bramble.

The (usually) black fruit is not a true berry; botanically it is termed an aggregate fruit, composed of small drupelets. It is a widespread and well-known group of over 375 species, many of which are closely related apomictic microspecies native throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere and South America.[2]

Contents

Growth and anatomical description [edit]

Blackberries are perennial plants which typically bear biennial stems ("canes") from the perennial root system.[3]

In its first year, a new stem, the primocane, grows vigorously to its full length of 3–6 m (in some cases, up to 9 m), arching or trailing along the ground and bearing large palmately compound leaves with five or seven leaflets; it does not produce any flowers. In its second year, the cane becomes a floricane and the stem does not grow longer, but the lateral buds break to produce flowering laterals (which have smaller leaves with three or five leaflets).[3] First and second year shoots usually have numerous short curved very sharp prickles that are often erroneously called thorns. These prickles can tear through denim with ease, and make the plant very difficult to navigate around. Prickle-free cultivars have been developed. Recently the University of Arkansas has developed primocane fruiting blackberries that grow and flower on first year growth much as the primocane-fruiting (also called fall bearing or everbearing) red raspberries do.

Unmanaged mature plants form a tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the node tip on many species when they reach the ground. Vigorous and growing rapidly in woods, scrub, hillsides and hedgerows, blackberry shrubs tolerate poor soils, readily colonizing wasteland, ditches and vacant lots.[2][4]

The flowers are produced in late spring and early summer on short racemes on the tips of the flowering laterals.[3] Each flower is about 2–3 cm in diameter with five white or pale pink petals.[3]

The drupelets only develop around ovules that are fertilized by the male gamete from a pollen grain. The most likely cause of undeveloped ovules is inadequate pollinator visits.[5] Even a small change in conditions, such as a rainy day or a day too hot for bees to work after early morning, can reduce the number of bee visits to the flower, thus reducing the quality of the fruit. Incomplete drupelet development can also be a symptom of exhausted reserves in the plant's roots, or infection with a virus such as Raspberry bushy dwarf virus.

In botanical terminology, the fruit is not a berry, but an aggregate fruit of numerous drupelets.

Ecology [edit]

A bee pollinating blackberries

Blackberry leaves are food for certain caterpillars; some grazing mammals, especially deer, are also very fond of the leaves. Caterpillars of the concealer moth Alabonia geoffrella have been found feeding inside dead blackberry shoots. When mature, the berries are eaten and their seeds dispersed by several mammals, such as the red fox and the Eurasian badger, as well as by small birds.[6]

A basket of wild blackberries

Blackberries grow wild throughout all parts of the United Kingdom and Ireland. They are an important element in the ecology of those countries. Harvesting the berries is a popular pastime in these countries. However, it is also considered an invasive weed, sending down its strong suckering roots amongst garden hedges and shrubs. In some parts of the world, such as in Australia, Chile, New Zealand and the Pacific Northwest of North America, some blackberry species, particularly Rubus armeniacus (syn. R. procerus, 'Himalaya') and Rubus laciniatus ('Evergreen'), are naturalised and considered an invasive species and a serious weed.[2]

The blackberry tends to be red during its unripe ("green") phase, leading to an old expression that "blackberries are red when they're green".

In various parts of the United States, wild blackberries are sometimes called "Black-caps", a term more commonly used for black raspberries, Rubus occidentalis.

As there is forensic evidence from the Iron Age Haraldskær Woman that she consumed blackberries some 2500 years ago, it is reasonable to conclude that blackberries have been eaten by humans over thousands of years.

Uses [edit]

Food [edit]

The soft fruit is popular for use in desserts, jams, seedless jelly and sometimes wine. It is often mixed with apples for pies and crumbles. Black berries are also used to produce candy.

Good nectar producers, blackberry shrubs bearing flowers yield a medium to dark, fruity honey.

Health benefits [edit]

 This section needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be removed. (November 2012)
Rod of asclepius.png

Blackberries have a high abundance of healthy antioxidants and nutrients such as anthocyanins, salicylic acid, ellagic acid, and fiber. Recent research on berries has shifted focus away from antioxidants as there is ample evidence that the antioxidants in berries do not get into the bloodstream and act as radical scavengers. However, there is evidence that they are important in cardiovascular health. Anthocyanins are antioxidants found in blackberries that are responsible for giving blackberries their rich and dark color. This concentrated pigment of blackberries is acknowledged with decreasing the rate at which the memory deteriorates. [7][full citation needed][unreliable source?]

Blackberries contain a compound called salicylic acid.[7] This compound found in blackberries has been used for centuries for its medicinal qualities. Salicylic acid has been proven to numb bodily pains and treat unusually high body temperature, or fevers.[8][full citation needed] Salicylic acid may have similar properties to aspirin that aid in protecting the body against heart disease.[7]

Arguably, the most beneficial property of the blackberry is its profusion of ellagic acid. Ellagic acid is a phytochemical, meaning it is only found in certain plants. In experimental studies, ellagic acid is used to treat tumors in mice; the result being ellagic acid is reliable for causing the death of particular cancer cells.[9][10][full citation needed] Researchers believe that ellagic acid may also work to reduce the harmful effects of estrogen that create breast cancer cells.[11][full citation needed]

Blackberries have both soluble and insoluble fiber. One cup of blackberries (144 g) has an average of 7.6 g of fibre and contain half the daily recommended dose of vitamin C, which protects the immune system and can lower the risk of developing certain cancers. Fiber is important in maintaining a healthy digestive system as it pushes toxins and other excess waste through the intestines and supports healthy and conventional bowel movements.[12][full citation needed][unreliable source?] One of the soluble fibres found within blackberries is pectin. Pectin helps lower harmful cholesterol levels which lowers ones’ chances of heart disease.[12]

Blackberries have few calories. Blackberries are more nutritious compared to other berries making it one of the best berries one can consume.[13]

Nutrients and antioxidant qualities [edit]

Blackberries, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 181 kJ (43 kcal)
Carbohydrates 9.61 g
- Sugars 4.88 g
- Dietary fiber 5.3 g
Fat 0.49 g
Protein 1.39 g
Water 88.15 g
Vitamin A 214 IU
- beta-carotene 128 μg (1%)
- lutein and zeaxanthin 118 μg
Thiamine (vit. B1) 0.02 mg (2%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2) 0.026 mg (2%)
Niacin (vit. B3) 0.646 mg (4%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.276 mg (6%)
Vitamin B6 0.03 mg (2%)
Folate (vit. B9) 25 μg (6%)
Vitamin C 21 mg (25%)
Vitamin E 1.17 mg (8%)
Vitamin K 19.8 μg (19%)
Calcium 29 mg (3%)
Iron 0.62 mg (5%)
Magnesium 20 mg (6%)
Manganese 0.646 mg (31%)
Phosphorus 22 mg (3%)
Potassium 162 mg (3%)
Sodium 1 mg (0%)
Zinc 0.53 mg (6%)
Link to USDA Database entry
Percentages are relative to
US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

The blackberry is known to contain polyphenol antioxidants, naturally occurring chemicals that can upregulate certain beneficial metabolic processes in mammals. The astringent blackberry root is sometimes used in herbal medicine as a treatment for diarrhea and dysentery.[14]

Blackberries are notable for their high nutritional contents of dietary fiber, vitamin C, vitamin K, folic acid (a B vitamin), and the essential mineral manganese.

Blackberries rank highly among fruits for antioxidant strength, particularly due to their dense contents of polyphenolic compounds, such as ellagic acid, tannins, ellagitannins, quercetin, gallic acid, anthocyanins and cyanidins.[15][16]

Blackberries have an ORAC value (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) of 5347 per 100 grams, including them among the top-ranked ORAC fruits. Another report using a different assay for assessing antioxidant strength placed blackberry at the top of more than 1000 antioxidant foods consumed in the United States.[17]

Nutrient content of seeds [edit]

Blackberries contain numerous large seeds that are not always preferred by consumers. The seeds contain some oil which is rich in omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and -6 fats (linoleic acid), as well as some protein, dietary fiber, carotenoids, ellagitannins and ellagic acid.[18]

Cultivation [edit]

Commercial cultivation [edit]

Black Butte blackberry

Worldwide, Mexico is the leading producer of blackberries with nearly the entire crop being produced for export into the off-season fresh markets in North America and Europe. The Mexican market is almost entirely from the cultivar 'Tupy' (often spelled 'Tupi' but the EMBRAPA program in Brazil from which it was released prefers the 'Tupy' spelling.). In the US, Oregon is the leading commercial blackberry producer in the world, producing 42.6 million pounds on 6,180 acres (25.0 km2), in 1995[19] and 56.1 million pounds on 7,000 acres (28 km2) in 2009.[20]

Numerous cultivars have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe[2] and the United States.[21] Since the many species form hybrids easily, there are numerous cultivars with more than one species in their ancestry.

'Marion' (marketed as "marionberry") is an important cultivar that was selected from seedlings from a cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' (commonly called "olallieberry") berries.[22] 'Olallie' in turn is a cross between loganberry and youngberry. 'Marion', 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' are just three of many trailing blackberry cultivars developed by the United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) blackberry breeding program at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon.

The most recent cultivars released from this program are the prickle-free cultivars 'Black Diamond', 'Black Pearl' and 'Nightfall' as well as the very early ripening 'Obsidian' and 'Metolius'. 'Black Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific Northwest. Some of the other cultivars from this program are 'Newberry', 'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black Butte', 'Kotata', 'Pacific' and 'Cascade'.[23]

Trailing blackberries are vigorous, crown forming, require a trellis for support, and are less cold hardy than the erect or semi-erect blackberries. In addition to the United States' Pacific Northwest, these types do well in similar climates such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Chile, and the Mediterranean countries.

Semi-erect, prickle-free blackberries were first developed at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, UK, and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, Maryland. These are crown forming, very vigorous, and need a trellis for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin' 'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay', 'Merton Thornless', 'Smoothstem' and 'Triple Crown'. Recently, the cultivar 'Cacanska Bestrna' (also called 'Cacak Thornless') has been developed in Serbia and has been planted on many thousands of hectares there.

The University of Arkansas has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types are less vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root initials (therefore they spread underground like raspberries). There are prickly and prickle-free cultivars from this program, including 'Navaho', 'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho' and 'Kiowa'. They are also responsible for developing the primocane fruiting blackberries such as 'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'.

In raspberries, these types are called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing. 'Prime-Jim' and 'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 by the University of Arkansas and are the first cultivars of primocane fruiting blackberry.[24] They grow much like the other erect cultivars described above, however the canes that emerge in the spring, will flower in mid-summer and fruit in late summer or fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool mild climate such as in California or the Pacific Northwest.[citation needed]

'Illini Hardy' a semi-erect prickly cultivar introduced by the University of Illinois is cane hardy in zone 5, where traditionally blackberry production has been problematic, since canes often failed to survive the winter.

Blackberry production in Mexico has expanded enormously in the past decade. While once based on the cultivar 'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in 1959, the Mexican industry is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the 1990s. 'Tupy' has the erect blackberry 'Comanche' and a "wild Uruguayan blackberry" as parents.[25] Since there are no native blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the widely grown 'Boysenberry' is the male parent. In order to produce these blackberries in regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate flower bud development, chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used to bring the plants into bloom.

Diseases and pests [edit]

As a result of blackberries belonging to the same genus as raspberries,[26] they share the same diseases including anthracnose which can cause the berry to have uneven ripening and sap flow may also be slowed.[27][28] They also share the same remedies including the Bordeaux mixture,[29] a combination of lime, water and Copper(II) sulfate.[30] The rows between blackberry plants must be free of weeds, blackberry suckers and grasses which may lead to pests or diseases.[31] Fruit growers are selective when planting blackberry bushes as wild blackberries may be infected[31] and gardeners are recommended to purchase only certified disease-free plants.[32]

The spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii is a serious pest of blackberries.[33] Unlike its vinegar fly relatives which are primarily attracted to rotting or fermented fruit, D. suzukii attacks fresh, ripe fruit by laying eggs under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and grow in the fruit, destroying the fruit's commercial value.[33]

Another pest is Amphorophora rubi, known as the Blackberry Aphid, who not only eats blackberries but raspberries as well.[34][35][36]

Byturus tomentosus (Raspberry beetle), Lampronia corticella (Raspberry Moth) and Anthonomus rubi (Strawberry blossom weevil) are also known to infest blackberries.[37]

Folklore [edit]

Folklore in the United Kingdom is told that blackberries should not be picked after Old Michaelmas Day (11 October) as the devil has claimed them, having left a mark on the leaves by urinating on them or pecking them.[citation needed] There is some value behind this legend as wetter and cooler weather often allows the fruit to become infected by various molds such as Botryotinia which give the fruit an unpleasant look and may be toxic.[38][39]

See also [edit]

References [edit]

  1. ^ Shorter Oxford English dictionary, 6th ed. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. 2007. p. 3804. ISBN 0199206872. 
  2. ^ a b c d Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
  3. ^ a b c d Gerard Krewer, Marco Fonseca, Phil Brannen, Dan Horton, 2004. Home Garden:Raspberries, Blackberries Cooperative Extension Service/The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
  4. ^ Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. ISBN 0-340-40170-2.
  5. ^ David L. Green 1996-2010. The Pollination Home Page
  6. ^ Fedriani, JM, Delibes, M. 2009. Functional diversity in fruit-frugivore interactions: a field experiment with Mediterranean mammals. Ecography 32: 983 - 992.
  7. ^ a b c Dyer, M. (2010). What Are The Health Benefits Of Blackberries?
  8. ^ Mackowiak, P. (2000). Brief History of Antipyretic Therapy
  9. ^ Ahn D, Putt D, Kresty L, Stoner GD, Fromm D, Hollenberg PF. (1996). "The effects of dietary ellagic acid on rat hepatic and esophageal mucosal cytochromes P450 and phase II enzymes". Carcinogenesis 17 (4): 821–828. doi:10.1093/carcin/17.4.821. PMID 8625497. 
  10. ^ Lesca, P. (1983). Protective effects of ellagic acid and other plant phenols on benzo[a]pyrene-induced neoplasia in mice. 
  11. ^ Papoutsi Z. Kassi E. Tsiapara A. Fokialakis N. Chrousos GP. Moutsatsou P. (2005). "Evaluation of estrogenic/antiestrogenic activity of ellagic acid via the estrogen receptor subtypes ERalpha and ERbeta". Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 53 (20): 7715. doi:10.1021/jf0510539. 
  12. ^ a b McEvoy, K. (2010). Medicinal Benefits of Blackberries.
  13. ^ Berry Health Benefits Network. Retrieved from: http://berryhealth.fst.oregonstate.edu/health_healing/fact_sheets/blackberry_facts.htm
  14. ^ Grieve, M. (1971). A Modern Herbal ISBN 0-486-22798-7
  15. ^ Wada L, Ou B (June 2002). "Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of Oregon caneberries". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 (12): 3495–500. doi:10.1021/jf011405l. PMID 12033817. 
  16. ^ Hager TJ, Howard LR, Liyanage R, Lay JO, Prior RL (February 2008). "Ellagitannin composition of blackberry as determined by HPLC-ESI-MS and MALDI-TOF-MS". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56 (3): 661–9. doi:10.1021/jf071990b. PMID 18211030. 
  17. ^ Halvorsen BL, Carlsen MH, Phillips KM, et al. (July 2006). "Content of redox-active compounds (ie, antioxidants) in foods consumed in the United States". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84 (1): 95–135. PMID 16825686. 
  18. ^ Bushman BS, Phillips B, Isbell T, Ou B, Crane JM, Knapp SJ (December 2004). "Chemical composition of caneberry (Rubus spp.) seeds and oils and their antioxidant potential". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52 (26): 7982–7. doi:10.1021/jf049149a. PMID 15612785. 
  19. ^ "Blackerry Production in Oregon". Northwest Berry & Grape Information Network. Retrieved 1996-02-04. 
  20. ^ "Oregon Berry Production". United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Oregon Field Office. Retrieved 2011-06-27. 
  21. ^ Evergreen blackberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission
  22. ^ Marionberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission
  23. ^ Thornless processing blackberry cultivars, Horticultural Crop Research, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture
  24. ^ Vincent, Christopher I. (2008). Yield Dynamics of Primocane-fruiting Blackberries Under Hightunnels and Ambient Conditions, Including Plant Growth Unit Estimations and Arthropod Pest Considerations. ProQuest. p. 2. ISBN 0549964754. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  25. ^ Antunes, L.E.C. & Rassieira, M.C.B. (2004). Aspectos Técnicos da Cultura da Amora-Preta. ISSN 1516-8840.
  26. ^ Bradley, Fern Marshall; Ellis, Barbara W.; Martin, Deborah L. (2010). The Organic Gardener's Handbook of Natural Pest and Disease Control: A Complete Guide to Maintaining a Healthy Garden and Yard the Earth-Friendly Way. Rodale, Inc. p. 51. ISBN 1605296775. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  27. ^ "Growing Raspberries & Blackberries". cals.uidaho.edu. p. 29. Retrieved 2012-11-13. 
  28. ^ Controlling diseases of raspberries and blackberries. United States. Science and Education Administration. 1980. p. 5. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  29. ^ Waite, Merton Benway (1906). Fungicides and their use in preventing diseases of fruits. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. p. 243. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  30. ^ "Bordeaux Mixture". ucdavis.edu. June 2010. Retrieved 2012-11-13. 
  31. ^ a b Ensminger, Audrey H. (1994). Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia: A-H. p. 215. ISBN 9780849389818. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  32. ^ Shrock, Denny (2004). Home Gardener's Problem Solver: Symptoms and Solutions for More Than 1,500 Garden Pests and Plant Ailments. Meredith Books. p. 352. ISBN 0897215044. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  33. ^ a b Doug Walsh. "Spotted Wing Drosophila Could Pose Threat For Washington Fruit Growers". sanjuan.wsu.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-12. 
  34. ^ Hill, Dennis S. (1987). Agricultural Insect Pests of Temperate Regions and Their Control. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0521240131. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  35. ^ The Review of Applied Entomology: Agricultural, Volume 18. CAB International. 1931. p. 539. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  36. ^ R. L. Blackman, V. F. Eastop and M. Hills (1977). Morphological and cytological separation of Amphorophora Buckton (Homoptera: Aphididae) feeding on European raspberry and blackberry ( Rubus spp.). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 67, pp 285-296 doi:10.1017/S000748530001110X
  37. ^ Squire, David (2007). The Garden Pest & Diseases Specialist: The Essential Guide to Identifying and Controllong Pests and Diseases of Ornamentals, Vegetables and Fruits. New Holland Publishers. p. 39. ISBN 1845374851. Retrieved November 12, 2012. 
  38. ^ Historic-UK.com Michaelmas Facts
  39. ^ Black Country Bugle - Michaelmas History and Traditions
This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 edition of The Grocer's Encyclopedia.


Further reading [edit]

Allen, D.E. and Hackney, P. 2010. Further fieldwork on the brambles (Rubus fruticosus L. agg.) of North-east Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal 31: 18–22.

External links [edit]

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