Asian martial arts (origins)

Theories of the origins of Asian martial arts range from the highly diffusionist to models which show greater recognition of independent invention. The former argue that Asian martial arts history consists of one cohesive tree of thought, with branches spreading transitively to each country and originating in India or even Greece. The latter arguments believe that defense arts naturally evolved in each place, similar predominantly because humans are similar. In other words, left to their own devices, any civilization needing to defend itself will produce a wrestling style, kicking, punching, weapons, and a collective military style; simply because all such civilizations are by definition using the same raw materials.

Pre-India

The evolution of the martial arts has been described by historians in the context of countless historical battles. Building on the work of Laughlin (1956, 1961), Rudgley (2000) argues that the martial arts of the Chinese, Japanese and Aleut peoples, Mongolian wrestling all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common Mongoloid ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia.". Todd & Webb (2005) claims that "when Alexander the Great expanded his empire to stretch as far as India, he may have sown the seeds of modern Asian martial arts.".

India

Further information: Indian martial arts

The Nataraja dance pose.

Around the 3rd century BC, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These elements of yoga, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.

Indian martial arts were an important influence in the development of a number of modern Asian martial arts, particularly within the Indian cultural sphere (countries outside India influenced by Indian culture and religion) of Southeast Asia. Examples include Indo-Malay silat, Burmese banshay, naban and bando, Filipino escrima and kali, Thai krabi krabong and Cambodian bokator. Indian martial arts also lightly influenced the various forms of Indochinese kickboxing, namely Muay Thai from Thailand, Muay Lao from Laos, Tomoi from Malaysia, Pradal Serey from Cambodia and Lethwei from Myanmar.

China

Main article: Chinese martial arts

Indian martial arts may have spread to China via the transmission of Buddhism in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era, and thus influenced Shaolinquan. There were, naturally, previous defense techniques in place, with records of dating back to the Qin Dynasty (221 to 207 BC).^{[citation needed]}

Elements from Indian philosophy, like the Nāga, Rakshasa, and the fierce Yaksha were syncretized into protectors of Dharma; these mythical figures from the Dharmic religions figure prominently in Shaolin boxing, Chang boxing and staff fighting. The religious figures from Dharmic religions also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts. Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the Mudra hand positions used in Hinduism and Buddhism, both of which derived from India. Similarly, the 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian kalaripayat.

The predominant telling of the diffusion of the martial arts from India to China involves a 5th century prince-turned-monk named Bodhidharma who is said to have traveled to Shaolin, sharing his chuan style and thus creating Shaolinquan. According to Wong Kiew Kit, the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense."

The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is attributed to Bodhidharma's own Yi Jin Jing, though its authorship has been disputed by several modern historians such as Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi. The oldest known available copy of the Yi Jin Jing was published in 1827 and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods, mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with the martial arts only became widespread after the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.

Main gate of the Shaolin temple in Henan.

The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of Chang'an during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497. Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.

In addition, the Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, the Bibliographies in the Book of the Han Dynasty and the Records of the Grand Historian document the existence of fighting styles in China before Bodhidharma. Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma. The martial arts Shuāi Jiāo and Sun Bin Quan, to name two, supposedly predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries.

Japan

Main article: Japanese martial arts

The frescro described by Doshin So.

The Samurai class in Japan made Zen their way of life following their encounter with the martial-arts-oriented Zen Rinzai School introduced to Japan by Eisai in the 12th century.^{[citation needed]}

Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, was convinced that a Shaolin temple fresco depicted Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.

Korea

Main article: Korean martial arts

Wrestling, called ssireum, is the oldest form of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, it was also popular among villagers during festivals. The ancient Koreans didn't develop a comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat partly owing to their preference for bows and arrows, and also because of the late arrival of steel in Korea. It appears that during the Goguryeo dynasty, (37 BC – 668) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced.

In 1593, Korea received help from China to win back Pyongyang from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled Ji Xiao Xin Shu (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist Qi Jiguang. King Seonjo (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the Muyejebo (무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the Muyesinbo (Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).

In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated Muyedobotongji (Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to taekyeon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on.

Vietnam

Main article: Vietnamese martial arts

Flying scissors to the neck. The opponent is forced to the ground with a twist of the body.

Vietnamese martial arts are influenced by efforts to defend the country from foreign threats and also by the people whom Vietnam conquered (Champa). The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (dynasties), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts.

The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against . In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves in national disputes.^{[citation needed]}