Break-of-gauge

Track gauge
Break-of-gauge - Dual gauge
Gauge conversion (list) - Bogie exchange - Variable gauge
Rail track - Tramway track
by size mm ft′ in″   Broad   Brunel 2140 7′ 0¼″   Indian 1676 5′ 6″   Iberian 1668 5′ 5⅔″   Irish 1600 5′ 3″   Russian 1520 4′ 11⅚″   Standard (Stephenson) 1435 4′ 8½″   Narrow/Medium   Scotch 1372 4′ 6″   Cape 1067 3′ 6″   Metre 1000 3′ 3⅜″   Narrow   Three foot 914 3′   Bosnian 760 2′ 5⅞″   Narrow/Minimum   Fifteen inch 381 1′ 3″ North America - South America - Europe

With railways, a break-of-gauge occurs where a line of one gauge meets a line of a different gauge. Trains and rolling stock cannot run through without some form of conversion between gauges, and freight and passengers must otherwise be transloaded. Either way, a break-of-gauge adds delays, cost, and inconvenience to traffic that must pass from one gauge to another.

Inconvenience

Bogie changing in Ussuriisk (near Vladivostok) at the Chinese–Russian border

One solution to the break-of-gauge problem – the transporter car

Transloading of freight from cars of one gauge to cars of another is very labour- and time-intensive, and increases the risk of damage to goods. If the capacity of freight cars on each system does not match, additional inefficiencies can arise. Technical solutions to avoid transloading include variable gauge axles, replacing the bogies of cars, and the use of transporter cars that can carry a car of a different gauge.

Talgo and CAF have developed dual gauge axles (variable gauge axles) which permit through running between broad gauge and standard gauge. In Japan the Gauge Change Train has been built on Talgo patents^{[citation needed]} that can run on standard and narrow (1067 mm) gauge.

In some cases, breaks-of-gauge are avoided by installing dual gauge track, either permanently or as part of a project to replace one gauge with another.

At almost every break-of-gauge, passengers have to change trains, but there are a few passenger trains that can run through a break-of-gauge. For example, the Talgo (variable-gauge axles, see above), and the Moscow-Beijing trains (bogie exchange) although on the latter passengers usually have to leave the train for some time whilst the work is done.

Advantages

Narrow gauges tend to be associated with smaller loading gauges and sharper curves, which tend to reduce initial capital costs. This offsets the costs of any traffic affected by the break-of-gauge.

An advantage is that invading armies may be severely hampered (as when Germany invaded the USSR in WWII). However this break of gauge came about more by accident than design as the American consulting engineers were merely introducing the gauge commonly found in the southern United States.

Another advantage might be that if the different gauges have different loading gauges, the break-of-gauge helps prevent the larger wagons straying onto lines with smaller tunnels.

Similarly, if the larger and smaller gauges use different couplers, the break of gauge tends to keep the different couplers separate.

Passengers

For passenger trains the inconvenience is less, especially at major train stations, where many passengers change trains or end their journeys anyway. Therefore some passenger-only railways have been built with other gauges than would otherwise be used in a country, like the high-speed railways in Japan and Spain.

For night trains, which are very common in places like Russia, train change is less desired, especially by night. For these often the bogies are replaced, even if it takes much more time than having the passengers change trains.

Tidal traffic

The inefficiencies of a break of gauge are especially apparent when there is a tide of traffic in one direction, as might happen when fodder from a drought-free region needs to be transhipped to a drought-affected region on the other gauge. Firstly, one might run out of suitable wagons on the other gauge, while loaded wagons unable to be transhipped obstruct the main lines or crossing loops on the first gauge.

Tidal traffic can be handled by having large numbers of spare and idle wagons and locomotives sitting at the break of gauge station just in case, which an appropriate number of stabling siding to accommodate these spare wagons out of the way on normal traffic. This is clearly wasteful.

Overcoming a break of gauge

Where trains encounter a different gauge, such as at the Spanish-French border or the Russian-Chinese one, the traditional solution has always been transshipment — transferring passengers and freight to cars on the other system. This is obviously far from optimal, and a number of more efficient schemes have been devised. One common one is to build cars to the smaller of the two systems' loading gauges with bogies that are easily removed and replaced, with a bogie exchange at an interchange location on the border. This takes a few minutes per car, but is quicker than transshipment. A more modern and sophisticated method is to have multigauge bogies whose wheels can be moved inward and outward. Normally they are locked in place, but special equipment at the border unlocks the wheels and pushes them inward or outward to the new gauge, relocking the wheels when done. This can be done as the train moves slowly over special equipment.

When transhipping from one gauge to another, chances are that the quantity of rolling stock on each gauge is unbalanced, leading to more idle rolling stock on one gauge than other.

In some cases, breaks of gauge are avoided by installing dual gauge track, either permanently or as part of a changeover process to a single gauge.

Piggyback operation

One method of achieving interoperability between rolling stock of different gauges, is to piggyback stock of one gauge on special transporter wagons or even ordinary flat wagons fitted with rails. This enables rolling stock to reach workshops and other lines of the same gauge to which they are not otherwise connected. Piggyback operation by the trainload occurred as a temporary measure between Port Augusta and Marree during gauge conversion works in the 1950s, to bypass steep gradients and washaways in the Flinders Ranges.

Narrow gauge railways were favoured in the underground slate quarries of North Wales, as tunnels could be smaller. The Padarn Railway operated transporter wagons on their 4 ft  (1,219 mm) gauge railway, each carrying four 1 ft 10 ³⁄₄ in (578 mm) slate trams. When the Great Western Railway acquired one of the narrow gauge lines in Blaenau Ffestiniog, they used a similar type of transporter wagon in order to use the quarries' existing slate wagons.

Transporter wagons are most commonly used to transport narrow gauge stock over standard gauge lines. More rarely, standard gauge vehicles are carried over narrow gauge tracks using adaptor vehicles; examples include the Rollbocke transporter wagon arrangements in Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic and the milk transporter wagons of the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway in England.

In 2010, Japan is developing the Train on Train piggyback concept.

Containerisation

The widespread use of containers since the 1960s has made break of gauge less of a problem, since containers are efficiently transferred from one mode to another by suitable large cranes.

Consider the transfer from a train of one gauge to another train of a different gauge. It helps if the lengths of the wagons on each gauge are the same so the containers can be transferred from one train to the other with no transverse movement along the train. The different wagons should carry the same number of containers. Delays to each train depends on how many cranes can operate simultaneously.

Container cranes are relatively portable, so that if the break of gauge transshipment hub changes from time to time, the cranes can be moved around as required. Fork lift trucks can also be used.

There is a gauge transshipment station at Kidatu in Tanzania.

Examples of breaks of gauge

Some examples of breaks of gauge between systems include:

Africa

• Rail lines linked by ferries on convenient rivers or lakes. See train ferries.
• Dar es Salaam is one of the few places in Africa where different gauges actually meet.
• Kidatu in Tanzania has a container transshipment facility to move freight containers between TAZARA (1067 mm) and Tanzania Railways Corporation trains (1000 mm)
• Angola originally had 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in), 600 mm (1 ft 11 ⁵⁄₈ in) and 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) lines, but the 1,000 mm and 600 mm lines were converted to 1,067 mm in the 1950s in expectation that the lines would meet, but this has never happened.
• D. R. Congo originally had both 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in) and 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) lines, but when these lines met in the 1950s, the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in) line was converted to 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm).

Asia

Bangladesh

Bangladesh Railway has a mixture of 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) Indian gauge and 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in) metre gauge track. It has decided to resolve many of its break-of-gauge problems by converting its most important broad and narrow gauge routes to dual gauge.

People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China has a standard gauge network; neighbouring countries Mongolia, Russia and Kazakhstan use 1,520 mm (4 ft 11 ⁵⁄₆ in) gauge, and Vietnam uses metre gauge, so there are some breaks of gauge. See the Trans-Manchurian Railway (gauge changing at Zabaikalsk on the Russian side of the border), the Trans-Mongolian Railway and the Lanxin railway. The Yunnan–Vietnam Railway is dual gauge in Vietnam as far as Hanoi. There is currently a break of gauge at Dostyk on the Kazakh border, but Kazakhstan is building an additional line, in standard gauge, line between Dostyk and Aktogay

Hong Kong

Hong Kong's railway, the MTR, has 1,432 mm (4 ft 8 ³⁄₈ in) gauge within its own network, whereas the lines the MTR Corporation Limited operates on a lease, namely East Rail Line, West Rail Line and Ma On Shan Line, use 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in) standard gauge. These standard gauge lines are leased from another railway company, the KCR Corporation, who was the operator of these lines until 2007. The tracks of the two systems are not interconnected. The Light Rail is also standard gauge.

India

India currently has significant lengths of four different gauges: 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) Indian gauge, 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in) metre gauge, 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) gauge and 2 ft  (610 mm) gauge. Indian Railways has decided to convert most of its metre gauge and narrow gauge systems to broad gauge under an exercise called Project Unigauge.

Iran

Iran, with its standard gauge rail system, has break-of-gauge with 1,520 mm (4 ft 11 ⁵⁄₆ in) gauge at the borders with Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, and now also with Pakistan's 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) Indian gauge at Zahedan. The break-of-gauge station at Zahedan was built outside the city, as the existing station was hemmed in by built up areas.

Japan

Most high-speed lines in Japan have been built as standard gauge lines. A few routes have been planned as narrow-gauge, and the conventional (non-high-speed) is mostly narrow-gauge 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm), so there are some breaks of gauge and dual gauge is used in some places. Private railways often use other gauges.

In 2010, Hokkaidō Railway Company was working on a transporter train by trainload concept called Train on Train to carry narrow-gauge freight trains at faster speeds on standard-gauge flatcars. The Seikan Tunnel is being converted by Hokkaido Railway Company to dual gauge to accommodate the Hokkaido Shinkansen.

North Korea

A break of gauge occurs across the Tumen River which forms the border between North Korea and Russia.

• Russia (Khasan)
• North Korea (Tumangang)

Taiwan (Republic of China)

Like Japan, the Republic of China use the 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge for the majority of its railway network, but 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in) standard gauge for its high-speed rail; however, gauge differences are less of a problem as Taiwan High Speed Rail generally uses separate rolling stocks. The THSR has separate rights of way, and at most locations runs on routes kilometres away from the conventional railway network.

Thailand

Several countries bordering Thailand use meter gauge track, but there are missing links between Thailand and Vietnam via Cambodia.

Europe

Russian gauge meeting Standard gauge

• Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania (1,435 mm).

vs. Former Soviet Union countries: Russia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova (1,520 mm). Night trains are common, and they are often bogie-exchanged.

• Finland (1,524 mm) and Sweden (1,435 mm), between Tornio and Haparanda via a short dual-gauge bridge. Freight is generally transloaded. No passenger trains. There is also a SeaRail ferry (with 1,435 mm onboard) linking Turku, Finland with Stockholm, Sweden; the Turku terminal handles both gauges.
• Bulgaria (1,435 mm) railroad ferries to Ukraine, Russia and Georgia (1,520 mm)
• Germany (1,435 mm) railroad ferries (from Sassnitz with 1,520 mm onboard) to Russia and Baltic States and to Finland (from Travemünde with 1,435 mm onboard).
• While breaks of gauge are generally located near borders, a line carrying iron ore from Ukraine extends into Slovakian territory to a steelworks near Košice and there are plans to extend the line further west, to Vienna. See also Rail gauge in Slovakia.
• The historically first break-of-gauge between Russian and Standard gauge was built in 1861 as dual gauge between the border stations of Eydtkuhnen, Germany (now Chernyshevskoye Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia), and Kybartai, then Russia, now Lithuania.
• The 1520 Strategic Partnership seeks to harmonise the gauges of Europe-Asia.

Iberian gauge meeting Standard gauge

• France (1,435 mm) and Spain (1,668 mm), for example at Cerbère (FR) - Portbou (ES); Hendaye (FR) - Irun (ES) and Latour-de-Carol. From 2010 the Spanish high-speed network (1,435 mm) is connected to the French railways without a break-of gauge.

The earliest working example of the axle changing system at the French-Spain border in 1948 had the waggons being changed at the rate of 8 per hour.

Local Narrow gauge lines meeting mainlines

• Switzerland, see "Minor breaks of gauge" section below.

Oceania

Australia

The break-of-gauge platform for the Sydney-Melbourne railway at Albury station; SG on left; BG on right.

Origins

• (1845) Evils of break of gauge and Gauge Commission of UK mentioned in Australian Newspaper

The then three mainland states originally agreed to 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in) gauge.

• South Australia (1847)
• New South Wales (1851)
• Victoria

• Then there was a change to 1,600 mm (5 ft 3 in) gauge.
• South Australia (1851)

Current

• Queensland (3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm)) and New South Wales (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in (1,435 mm))
• New South Wales (1,435 mm) and Victoria (5 ft 3 in (1,600 mm))
• Southern South Australia uses broad gauge, like Victoria. Northern South Australia had a number of narrow gauge 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) lines, leading to several break-of-gauge stations at various times including Hamley Bridge, Terowie, Peterborough, Gladstone, Port Pirie, Port Augusta, Marree, Wolseley and Mount Gambier. The Eyre Peninsula lines have always been isolated.
• In the latter part of the 20th century, all mainland capital cities were connected by a standard gauge 4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in (1,435 mm) network, leading to more breaks of gauge (or branch line closures) in states where this is not the norm
• Perth's railway system is narrow gauge (3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm)), while the Indian Pacific is standard gauge. The line between East Perth and Midland, the eastern suburban terminus, and inland to the major rail junction at Northam is dual gauge. All rail east of this is standard gauge.
• Since the 1990s, new concrete sleepers installed in the Adelaide suburban area have been gauge convertible (the difference between the gauges are too close to allow dual gauge).
• In May 2008, agreement reached to convert the declining trafficked broad gauge line of a BG/SG pair for 200 km between Seymour and Albury to double track Standard gauge for growing interstate traffic.
• Since the 1930s, most Victoria steam locomotives were designed for ease of conversion to standard gauge, but except for R766, this has never happened.
• Note that the lines of the same gauge do not all join up, being separated by other gauges, deserts or oceans. Rolling stock is often transferred on low-loaders or by ship.

Military

Military depots where arms, fuel, etc. are stored are best located at break-of-gauge stations so that stores can be loaded directly onto the correct gauge. Such depots were created at Albury, Tocumwal and Oaklands.

New Zealand

New Zealand originally had small lengths of lines of 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in), 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in) and 1,600 mm (5 ft 3 in), but quickly converted all to 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) which better suited this sparsely populated and mountainous country.

North America

• The United States of America had broad, narrow and standard gauge tracks in the 19th century, but is now almost entirely 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in) standard gauge. Narrow-gauge operations are generally isolated rail systems. The notable exception would be the break-of-gauge in Antonito, Colorado between the standard gauge Rio Grande Scenic Railroad and the narrow gauge Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad, billed as the Toltec Gorge Limited.
• Similarly, Canada and Mexico are standard gauge.
• A break-of-gauge, 3 ft  (914 mm) to 4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in (1,435 mm), between Mexico and Guatemala is currently closed.

South America

• Argentina and Chile both use 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) broad gauge tracks, but the link railway uses 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in) narrow gauge with rack railway sections. So there are two break-of-gauge stations, one at Los Andes, Chile and the other at Mendoza, Argentina. It was planned to reopen this currently closed railway in summer 2007 and re-gauge from small to broad to be in future without break-of-gauge
• A break-of-gauge between Argentina and Brazil, 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in) to 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in)
• A break-of-gauge between Uruguay and Brazil, 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in) to 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in) at Santana do Livramento.

Minor breaks of gauge

Wherever there are narrow gauge lines that connect with a standard gauge line, there is technically a break-of-gauge. If the amount of traffic transferred between lines is small, this might be a small inconvenience only. In Austria and Switzerland there are numerous breaks-of-gauge between standard-gauge main lines and narrow-gauge railways.

Many internal Swiss railways that operate in the more mountainous regions are 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ³⁄₈ in) Metre gauge and most are equipped for rack assistance to deal with the relatively steep gradients encountered. Through running of standard gauge trains on rack sections would not be possible, but dual gauge track exists in many places where the gradient is relatively flat to carry standard and metre gauge stock. There also exists 800 mm (2 ft 7 ¹⁄₂ in) gauge railways which are entirely rack operated.

The effects of a minor break-of-gauge can be minimized by placing it at the point where a cargo must be removed from cars anyway. An example of this is the East Broad Top Railroad in the United States of America, which had a coal wash and preparation plant at its break-of-gauge in Mount Union, Pennsylvania. The coal was unloaded from narrow gauge cars of the EBT, and after processing was loaded into standard gauge cars of the Pennsylvania Railroad.

Nominal breaks of gauge

The line between Finland and Russia has a nominal break-of-gauge; Finnish gauge is 1,524 mm (5 ft)  whereas Russian gauge is 1,520 mm (4 ft 11 ⁵⁄₆ in). This does not usually prevent through-running, as the nominal 4 mm (0.16 in) difference is generally within tolerance, and the present Russian gauge is actually a redefinition of the older 1,524 mm (5 ft) .

The Iberian gauge is actually three slightly different gauges. Traditionally in Spain 1,672 mm (5 ft 5 ⁵⁄₆ in), traditionally in Portugal 1,664 mm (5 ft 5 ¹⁄₂ in), and the newer redefined 1,668 mm (5 ft 5 ²⁄₃ in). Through-running is done with vehicles having a gauge within certain tolerances.

Gauge orphan

When a main line is converted to a different gauge, such as with Unigauge in India, branch lines can be cut off and made relatively useless, at least for freight trains, until they too are converted to the new gauge. These severed branches can be called gauge orphans.

Gauge outreach

The opposite of a gauge orphan is a line of one gauge which reaches into the territory composed mainly of another gauge. Examples include five broad gauge lines of Victoria which crossed the border into otherwise standard gauge New South Wales. Similarly the standard gauge line from Albury to Melbourne in 1962 which eliminated most transshipment at Albury, especially the need for passengers to change trains in the middle of the night. A Russian broad gauge line reaches out from Ukraine into Slovakia to carry minerals; another broad gauge line reaches also from Ukraine into Poland to carry heavy iron ore and steel products without the need for transshipment as would be the case if there were a break of gauge at the border. In 2008, it was proposed to extend the Slovak line to Vienna. From 1994, the Rail Baltic proposal emerged to build a 728km North-South line to link European standard gauge railways from Poland to Kaunas, Lithuania, via Riga, Latvia to Tallinn, Estonia. The gauge outreach from Kalgoorlie to Perth, Western Australia partly replaced the original narrow gauge line, and partly rebuilt that line with better curves and gradients as double track dual gauge.

In 2010, a proposal surfaced to build a broad gauge line from an iron ore mine at Kaunisvaara in Sweden (whose rail network is otherwise standard gauge) to Finland which has a broad gauge network.

Ideal location

Transshipment hubs at breaks-of-gauge tend to happen at or near international borders because of formal principles about which gauge to have in a country, driver education, and unwillingness to allow too much foreign traffic and since it suits customs operations. Taken to its limits, the break-of-gauge can be like Wallangarra/Jennings (population 385/130 respectively) where it carefully straddles the state borders, with the station building being designed half with Queensland architecture and half with New South Wales architecture. A more sensible solution would have been to build the break-of-gauge at the already existing town of Tenterfield (population 3130), 12 miles (19 km) away. The relevant towns are not towns in two foreign countries but rather two in two colonies of the same mother country.

Passenger breaks-of-gauge should be located in important cities where many passengers would change trains anyway, like for the Japanese and Spanish high-speed railways. They should preferably not be placed in the middle of nowhere, where sleeping passengers may have to be woken in the middle of the night. The border between the Russian and Standard gauges does often have such a location, and therefore bogies are exchanged on the sleeper cars.

Equipment

Breaks of gauge are facilited by flood lighting for night time operation, electric flood lighting not being available in the early days. Similarly heavy duty cranes only become practical once electricity suppllies become available.

Other issues

While track gauge is the most important factor preventing through running between adjacent systems, other issues can also be a hindrance, including structure gauge, loading gauge, axleloads, couplings, brakes, electrification systems, signalling systems, multiple unit controls, rules and regulations, driver certification and language. The structure gauge, loading gauge and axleload problem are solved by simply using the smaller ones for through running. The general solution is often to custom-build vehicles that fit all the standards they shall follow. Trains can be built to accept two voltages and to have double signaling systems equipment etc.

See also

• Gauntlet track
• Ramsey Car Transfer Apparatus
• Variable gauge axles
  • SUW 2000 a form of VGA
  • INTERGAUGE a form of VGA
• Janes World Railways has maps that generally show breaks-of-gauge.
• Gauge conversion
• Erie Gauge War
• Eurasian Land Bridge
• Piggyback

External links

• Jane's World Railways (hard copy)
• Transport and Telecommunication:The operation of the gauge changing facility of the new railway line Rail Baltica, Jonas Jonaitis, Vol.7, No 1, 2006