Chera Dynasty

For the mythological stories about Kerala, see Kerala Kingdom, for district of Kuala Lumpur, see Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, the town in Spain, see Chera, Valencia, for the town in Selangor, see Cheras, Selangor.

Chera Kingdom (Keralaputras) சேரர் ചേര
Kingdom
c. 5th century BCE–1102 AD →   →   →
Extent of Chera Kingdom
Capital	Early Cheras: Kuzhumur, Vanchi, Karur, Tondi Second Cheras: Mahodayapuram, Kulashekarapuram
Language(s)	Tamil, Malayalam
Religion	Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam
Government	Monarchy
King	Nedum Cheralathan
	Senguttuvan Chera
Historical era	Middle Ages
- Established	c. 5th century BCE
- Rise to fame of the first recorded line of Cheras
- Rise of the second line of Cheras	800 AD
- Continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta attacks	1102 AD
Today part of	India

Part of a series on
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Chronology of Tamil history
Sangam period
Sources
Three Crowned Kings
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Society  ·  Religion  ·  Music
Early Pandyas
Early Cheras  · Early Cholas
Velirs
Medieval history
Pallava Empire
Pandya Empire
Chola Empire
Chera Kingdom
Vijayanagara Empire
Madurai Nayaks
Tanjore Nayaks
Kalahasti Nayaks
Gingee Nayaks
Kandy Nayaks
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Part of a series on the
History of Kerala
Pre-history
Pre-history of Kerala  · Edakkal Caves · Marayur
Sangam period
Sangam literature Muziris · Tyndis  Economy · Religion · Music Early Cheras Early Pandyas Ezhimalai kingdom Ay kingdom Saint Thomas Christians
Medieval age Kalabhra interregnum Mappila Later Cheras Kulashekhara Alwar Adi Shankara Medieval Chola Empire Zamorins of Calicut Venad Kolathunad Kingdom of Travancore Kingdom of Cochin Kerala school Vijayanagara Empire
Modern age
Vasco da Gama Dutch East India Company Travancore–Dutch War Battle of Colachel Mysore invasion Pazhassi Raja British East India Company Madras presidency Third Anglo–Mysore War Velu Thampi Malabar Rebellion Punnapra-Vayalar uprising Shree Narayana Guru Travancore-Cochin Indian independence Madras State Kerala Communist Party of India

Chera dynasty (Tamil: சேரர் ) in southern India is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas, they formed the three principle warring Iron Age Tamil kingdoms in India. Cheras ruled from before the Sangam Age (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD) until the 12th century AD.

Along with the Pandyas, Cholas and Satyaputras, Cheras ("Keralaputras") in the late megalithic phase are also mentioned in the inscriptions of Maurya Emperor Asoka. In the early centuries of the Christian era, the Chera Kingdom was as important as the kingdom of the Pandyas and the Cholas. There were two important lines of Chera Kings (Vanavaramban and Irumporai clans) and the kings belonging to these two lines ruled the Chera kingdom. The first one started from King Uthiyan Cheralathan and the second from Prince Antuvan Cheral Irumporai . Although the Cheras killed King Ilamcetcenni, the father of the Chola king Karikala, the Chera king also lost his life. Later the Cheras and Cholas temporarily became friends and concluded a matrimonial alliance. The Cheras later allied with Pandya rulers against the Cholas. But, the Chola forces under Karikala Chola defeated the allies in the Battle of Venni, and the wounded Chera king, Uthiyan Cheralathan, committed suicide. After second century AD, the Chera power declined rapidly. The reign of the Cheras was interrupted by the Kalabhra Interregnum and the Cheras after king Kulashekhara Varman are called Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram. The domination of first Chera dynasty lasted till circa 5th century AD and the second ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties.

The early Cheras ruled parts of Kerala (Malabar) State, Kongu Nadu, Salem and Dharmapuri from time immemorial. The dynasty probably added the Southern Nagapattanam and Thiruvarur districts after the marriage of the second king of the first Chera Dynasty into the royal family of the Cholas. The Chera Kingdom owed its importance to the trade with the Romans. Muziris, the famous sea port with two Roman regiments, was in the Chera kingdom and throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to their kingdom, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the Middle East and to southern Europe. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the Malabar coast, Karur and Coimbtore districts. It is said that the Romans built a temple of Augustus at Muziris.

Their ancient capitals were Kuzhumur, Vanchi, Karur and Tondi. The Second Cheras ruled from Mahodayapuram and Quilon.

Chera inscriptions of the 2nd century AD referring to the Irrumporai clan have been found near Karur, Tamil Nadu. During the time of Cheras, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim immigrants established Nasrani Mappila, Juda Mappila and Muslim Mappila communities. Nedum Cheralathan is said to have attacked the Yavana ships and held the Yavana traders to ransom. His son Senguttuvan Chera (the Red/Good Chera), the most celebrated and powerful Chera king is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the legendary Tamil epic Silapathikaram and his military expeditions. Senguttuvan Chera defeated his rivals and established his cousin securely on the throne. He is mentioned in the context of King Gajabahu’s rule in Sri Lanka, which can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century AD, depending on whether he was the earlier or the later Gajabahu.

The second dynasty, Kulasekharas, ruled from the outskirts of Muziris on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur). Though never, regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions.

Etymology and sources

In the Sangam Tamil lexicon the word Chera meaning "hill country", derived from Cheral, meaning "declivity or mountain slope" in Classical Tamil language. The Chera Kings were called Chera-alatan ("Lord of the Slopes") in classical Tamil.

In Sanskrit Kera means "coconut" and "Kerala" (Kera Alam) is "Kera kingdom". Sangam Literature never uses the name Kerala but Ashoka's edicts mention his tributary tribal dynasty known by the name Kedalaputho who were outside Ashoka's empire in 261 BC. Pliny, the Roman historian of the 1st century, who probably visited Kerala, called the area Caelobothras in his Natural History. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as Cerobothra whose capital is Karur.

South India in BC 300, showing the Chera, Pandya and Chola tribes

The only sources available regarding the early Chera Kings are the anthologies of Sangam literature, now generally agreed to belong to the first few centuries AD and a few mentions in the writings of ancient Greek and Romans such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

The earliest extant Tamil literary works, such as the Kalittokai, mention a mythical continent called Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located to the South of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, between the then Kumari and Pahrali Rivers. Pandyan kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras, supposedly ruled this country. Sangam literature further says that they fought and defeated the Nāga tribes, who might have been a non-Dravidian people. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of Villavars and the Meenavars (possibly the Cheras and the Pandyas respectively), and the Nāgas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, and subsequently Central India to the Nagas. Sangam literature is full of names of kings and princes, along with the poets who extolled them but these are not worked into connected history so far and the chronology is not settled. Their then capital is believed to be modern Karur in Tamil Nadu.

Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology, mentions a number of rulers of the Chera dynasty. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and they are in the following order:

• Unknown King
• King Nedum Cheralathan
  • Prince Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan
  • Prince Narmudi Cheral
• King Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan
  • Prince Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan
• King Selva Kadumko Valiathan
  • Prince Perum Cheral Irumporai
• King Ilam Cheral Irumporai
• Unknown ruler

Only few of these ascended the throne, the others being "yuvarajas" only.

The Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas are the three ruling dynasties of the southern region (Bharatavarsha) in the Hindu epic of the Ramayana. They are also mentioned in the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they take the side of the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War.

Archaeology has found epigraphic evidence of the early Cheras in the recorded history of South India: some inscriptions trace the dynasty from the mythical Puranic kings of the Lunar dynasty. The most important inscription is that at Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) which refers to three generations of Chera Rulers; Athan Cheral Irumporai, his son Perumkadungo and his grandson Ilamkadungo when Perumkadungo was ruler and Ilamkadungo appointed prince.

Chronology of Cheras

The Aranttar Malai iscription at Pugalur, Tamil Nadu assigned by historians to the 1st century AD mentions three generations of Chera kings whose names are in the Tamil Sangam poems. The trade with Greeks and Romans ("Yavanas") are corroborated by accounts of Pliny, Ptolemy and the author of Periplus. These foreign sources were written around the early centuries of the Christian era.

The Tamil epic Silappadikaram mentions that Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka was present at the installation of godess Pattini by King Senguttuvan Chera. The Pali historical poem Mahavamsa places King Gajabahu in the latter half of the second century AD. This Gajabahu Synchronism often serves as a sheet anchor of Sangam chronology.

Governance

Monarchy was the most important political institution of the Chera kingdom. There was a high degree of pomp and pageantry associated with the person of the king. The King wore a gold crown studded with precious stones. The king was an autocrat, but his powers limited by a counsel of ministers and scholars. The King held daily durbar to hear the problems of the common men and to redress them on spot.

The Royal Queen had a very important and privileged status and she took her seat by the side of the king in all religious ceremonies.

Another important institution was the "manram" which functioned in each village of the Chera kingdom. Its meeting were usually held by the village elders under a banyan tree and they helped in the local settlement disputes. The manrams were the venues for the village festivals as well.

Ruling dynasty and succession

In the course of the imperial expansion of the Cheras the members of the royal family set up residence at several places of the kingdom (at Vanchi, Karur and Tondi). They followed the collateral system of succession according to which the eldest member of the family, wherever he lived, ascended the throne. Junior princes and heir-apparents (crown princes) helped the ruling king in the administration.

The Chera rulers engaged in frequent intermarriage as well as warfare with the Pandyas and Cholas for decades. In early Tamil literature the Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai or Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called "Cheraman" in general.

Vanavaramban and Irumporai clans

King Uthiyan Cheralathan and his sons grandsons belonged to one branch of the Chera royal family called "Vanavaramban line". Prince Antuvan Cheral and his sons grandsons belonged to to another branch called "Irumporai line". The prince Antuvan Cheral mentioned below is the father of King Selva Kadungo. He is some times identified with Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan (younger brother of King Uthiyan Cheralathan) as is evidenced by Madamisyar in Purananuru. Antuvan Cheral had his seat at a city called Karur. He and three others in his line are regarded as contemporaries of Nedum Cheralathan and his sons. It is important to note that King Selva Kadumko Valiathan and King Nedum Cheralathan married two sisters.

Others ruling clans

Apart from these two clans, are also some other Chera rulers who figure in Sangam works. These rulers did not belonged to the main Chera line. One of the most important of them is Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai. Probably, he is the son and successor of King Illam Cheral Irumporai and the hero of the lost 10th decade. Another Chera ruler Kanaikkal Irumporai is also referred in the Sangam poems. "Palai Paitiya" Perum Kadungo was a Chera ruler based on the city of Vanchi. Kothai Marpan with capital at Tondi also figure in the Sangam literature.

Dominions

The early Cheras controlled a large territory of the Kongu region. Senguttuvan won a war against Kongar or Ganga people Western Ganga Dynasty. They also ruled the Kodunthamizh regions of Travancore (Venadu) and the Malabar (Kudanadu) west coast through vassals. Present day Palakkad, the Porainad, with capital at Theari (Para) became a part of the Chera kingdom after the Chera monarchs marriage with the only princess of the Porainadu dynasty.

Provinces and ports

The traditional Chera Kingdom was generally divided into three divisions on the basis of topography.

1. Puzhinadu- former Ezhil Malai kingdom (the sandy land)
2. Kudanadu (the western land)
3. Karkainadu (the impregnable rocky land, east of Kudanad)
4. Kuddanadu/Kuttanadu (the land of lakes)

The main ports in the Chera Kingdom were, Thundi (Tyndis), on the banks of Makkali river, south of the Lueke Island, Bramagara, Kalaikkarias, Muchirippattanam (Muziris) on the banks of Chulli/Psuedostomos river, Podoperoura, Semne, Koreoura/Kothora, and Bakarei (at the mouth of river Baris).

In land cities between Tundis and Muziris were, Naroulla, Kouba, and Paloura. In land cities between Psuedostomos and Baris were, Pasage, Mastanour, Kourellour, Pounnata, Aloe, Karoura, Arembour Bideris/Videris, Pantipolis, Adarima Koreour.

History

The Chera, Chola and Pandya were the ancient Tamil rulers of southern India (called "Tamilakam"). Chera means the Hill Country, Pandya means the Old Country and Chola means the New Country. The Cheras ruled western Malabar Coast, the Cholas ruled in the eastern Coromandel Coast and the Pandyas in the south-central peninsula. There were also numerous small vassal kingdoms and city-states called Vels.

The following is a general description based on Pathirruppaththu and other Sangam works.

King Uthiyan Cheralathan

Main article: Uthiyan Cheralathan

South India in AD 300

The first of the great rulers of the Chera kingdom was "Vanavaramban" Perumchottu Uthiyan Cheralathan. He had his capital at a place called Kuzhumur in Kuttanad. He expanded the kingdom northward and eastward from their original home in Kuttanad. Uthiyan Cheralathan was a contemporary of the Chola ruler Karikala Chola. Mamulanar credits him with having conducted a feast in honour of his ancestors. In a battle at Venni, Uthiyan Cheralathan was wounded on the back by Karikala Chola. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by starvation. His queen was Veliyan Nallini.

It is said that he fed the rival armies during the Kurukshetra war.

King Nedum Cheralathan

Main article: Imayavaramban Nedun-Cheralatan

Uthiyan Cheralathan was succeeded by his son "Imayavaramban" "Kudakko" Nedum Cheralathan. He ruled for 58 years as a Crown Prince first and as an absolute king later. Nedum Cheralathan probably consolidated the Chera kingdom, and literature and art developed highly during his period. Nedum Cheralathan is praised in the Second Ten of Pathirruppaththu composed by his court poet Kannanar. Nedum Cheralathan, famous for his hospitality, even gifted a part of Umbarkkattu (Anamalai) to Kannanar.

The title "Kudakko" (King of Kudanad) proves that the Cheras had by this time brought Kudanad under their sway. During the reing of Nedum Cheralathan five junior princes helped the him in the military expansions and conquests. They were Antuvan Cheral, Palayanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, Selva Kadumko Valiatan, Narmudi Cheral and Vel Kelu Kuttuvan. The greatest enemies of Nedum Cheralathan were Kadambas of Banavasi. He also won another victory over the "Yavanas" on the coast. The chief of the Yavanas was captured and paraded in public with hands pinioned to his back and head poured over with ghee. Mamulanar refers to a sea coast township called "Mantai" and the exhibition ornaments and diamonds captured by Nedum Cheralathan there.

Nedum Cheralathan was killed in a battle with a Chola ruler. But, the Chola ruler was also killed in the battle by a spear thrown at him by Nedum Cheralathan.

Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan is claimed to have even conquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his emblem on the face of the mountains.

Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan

"Puzhiyarkon" Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, a brother of Nedum Cheralathan, spent 25 years as Crown Prince and never became a king. He helped his brother in the conquests of northern Malabar. At least a part of northern Malabar came under the Chera rule in this period as is proven by the title "Puzhiyarkon". He later led the army and conquered Kongunad (Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan is also called "Karuvureriya Olavalko Perum Cheral Irumporai", Kongunad had earlier conquered by Ay Antiran with capital at Vanchi on the banks of Periyar). In the later years of his life, Palyani retired from military life and spent time in arts, letters, gifts and helping Brahmins.

Narmudi Cheral

"Kalangaikkani" Narmudi Cheral (son of Nedum Cheralthan; never became the king, was a Crown Prince under his father for 25 years) is praised in the 4th set, written by Kappiyanar. He, famous for his genoricity over the defeated, won a series of victories of the enemies. After an attack by Nannan of Ezhimalai on Punnadu (in Kodagu), the Chera army under Narmudi Cheral marched against the Mushika forces. In following battle of Pazhi, Narmudi Cheral was defeated. However in the battle of Vakai-perum-turai Narmudi Cheral defeated and killed Nannan, annexing Puzhinad.

Ilango Adigal, author of Silappatikaram

King Selva Kadumko Valiathan

Son of Anthuvan Cheral and the hero of the 7th set of poems composed by Kapilar, Selva Kadumko ruled Chera kingdom for 25 years. His residence was at the city of Tondi. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheralathan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas. He is sometimes identified the Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur.

King Vel Kelu Kuttuvan

Main article: Senguttuvan

"Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, son of Nedum Cheralathan, ascended the Chera throne after the death of his father. Vel Kelu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary Kadal Pirakottiya "Senguttuvan Chera"- the most illustrious ruler of the early Cheras. This warrior king ruled for 55 years, defeating many chieftains. The Chera ruled from Kollimalai in the east to Tondi and Mantai in the western coast. The queen of Senguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). The son of Senguttuvan Chera was Kuttuvan Cheral. It is not clear whether Prince Kuttuvan Chera ascended the throne or not. During Senguttuvan Chera's reign, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Ilam Cheral and Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan helped him in his expansions as Crown Princes or Junior Princes.

In his early years of rule, Senguttuvan successfully intervened in a civil war in the Chola Kingdom. The civil war among the Chola princes and the Cheras stood on the side of their relative Killi. The rivals of Prince Killi were defeated in a battle at Neriyavil, Uraiyur and he established firmly on the Chola throne.

The land and naval expedition against the Kadambas was also successful. The Kadambas had the support of the "Yavanas", they were routed in the Battle of Idumbil and Valyur. The Fort Kodukur in the which the Kadamba army took shelter was stormed and the Kadambas was beaten. In the following naval expedition the Yavana supported Kadamba army was crushed. He is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan.

Ilango Adigal (perhaps the brother of Senguttuvan Chera) wrote the legendary Tamil epic Silappatikaram sitting at a Jain monastery at Kunavayilkottam (Trikkanamathilakam) near Vanchi. Silapathikararam describes Senguttuvan Chera's decision to propitiate a temple (Virakkallu) for the goddess Pattini (Kannagi) at Vanchi. According the Silappadikaram, an astrologer appeared in the court of King Nedum Cheralathan and predicted that Ilango, the younger son of the king, would become the ruler. The prediction displeases Prince Senguttuvan. In order to respect the sentiments of his elder brother, Illango abdicated all his claims to the throne and took to the life of a Jain ascetic.

Senguttuvan Chera was a contemporary King Gajabahu of Sri Lanka. King Gajabahu, according to the poem Mahavamsa, visited the Chera country during the Pattini festival at Vanchi.

Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan

Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan was a Crown Prince for a long 38 years. Trade and commerce flourished in the Chera kingdom during his rule. He is said to have gifted some villages to Brahmins in Kuttanad.

Perum Cheral Irumporai

Main article: Tagadur Erinda Perumcheral

"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai (son of Selva Kadumko, Crown Prince under Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur. He destroyed the famous city of Tagadur which was ruled by the a powerful ruler Adigaman Ezhni. He is also called as "the lord of Puzhinad and Kollimala" and "the lord of Puhar". Puhar was in fact the Chola capital. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor chief called Kaluval.

King Illam Cheral Irumporai

Illam Cheral Irumporai (son of Perum Cheral Irumporai, probably succeeded Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He also defeated the Pandyas and the Cholas and brought immense wealth to his capital at a city called Vanchi. He is said to have distributed these treasures among the Pana poets.

King Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai

Main article: Yanaikat-sey Mantaran Cheral

King Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai preserved the territorial integreaty of the Chera Kingdom under his rule. But, by the time of Mantaran Cheral the decline of the kingdom had began. The Chera ruled from Kollimalai in the east to Tondi and Mantai in the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle a place called Vilamkil.

The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. But, the Chera was managed to escape and regain the lost kingdom.

Kanaikkal Irumporai

Kanaikkal Irumporai said to have defeated a local chief called Muvan. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of his prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Tondi. The later Kanaikkal Irumporai was captured by the Chola ruler Sengannan and he later committed suicide by starvation.

Army

The Cheras had a well-equipped army which consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots. There was also an efficient navy. The Chera soldiers made offering to the War Godess Kottavai before any military operation. It was tradition that the Chera rulers emerged victorious in a battle to wear the anklets made out of the crowns of the defeated rulers.

Trade

They were in contact with the Satavahanas in the north and with the Romans and Greeks. Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) from Malainadu. Muziris has been referred to by the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an inland port probably near Kodungallur.

Religion

Most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian practices. The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera kingdom along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worships. The war goddess Kottavai was propitiated with complex sacrifices. The Cheras probably worshiped this mother goddess. Kottavai was later on assimilated into the present day form of goddess Devi.

A small percentage of the population followed Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism. These three philosophies came from northern India to the Chera kingdom. A small Jewish and Christian population also lived in the Chera territories.

Post-Sangam Age

The Kalabhras dynasty ruled over the entire ancient Tamil country between the 3rd and the 6th century in an era of South Indian history called the Kalabhra interregnum. The Kalabhras displaced the kingdoms of the early Cholas, Pandayas and Chera dynasties. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. Mostly, they were the allies of the powerful Pallavas, against the Pandyas and Ays.

The Kalabhras were defeated around the 6th century with the revival of Pallava and Pandya power. A Pandya ruler, Maravarman Rajasimha I (c. 730 – 765 AD), mentioned in a number of Pandya copper-plate inscriptions, was a prominent ruler during the early 8th century CE. He claims to have defeated a prominent Chera king. The name of the Chera king is not known, however from the details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory ceded seems to have included the entire Kerala and the Southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli, with capital at Karur.

The copper plates of the Pallava dynasty kings of the period give us a glimpse about their field of action. In the reign of Pandya king Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (765-790 CE), the Cheras was still in the Karur region as a close ally of the Pallava dynasty. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan defeated the local king Atiya of the Ay kingdom, at first, at Ayiraveli Aiyilur, and pursued him to Pugalur and vanquished him. The Pallava and Chera came to help the Atiya, but were also defeated. That this war between Cheras and Pallava on the one hand and the Pandya on the other, took place at Karur is indicated by Dalavaypuram plates which specifically say Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan defeated the Kadava (Pallava) at Karur. But the Vaishnava saint Thirunmangai Alvar, states that the Pallava won a victory over the Pandya at Karur. This would indicate that the Karur battle was indecisive.

During this period, the port Vizhinjam (former capital of the Ay kingdom), seems to have slipped out of the hand of the Cheras and was controlled by the Ay kingdom. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan states in his Srivaramangalam plates, that he defeated the Ay king at Vizhinjam. But, within a short period, the Cheras regained the Vizhinjam area. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan's son, Sri Mara Srivallabha, claims to have killed the Chera in a battle at Vizhinjam. But, again around 850 to 900 CE the Vizhinjam region was under the control of the Ay kings Karunan Tadakkan and Aviyalantadakkan.

Adi Shankara, the Hindu philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, was Kulasekhara Varman's contemporary.

Cheraman Perumal Juma Masjid, believed to have been built upon the request of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler and probably the first Mosque in India

Second Chera Kingdom

Main article: Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras)

The Chera power revived about 9th century AD under "Alwar" Kulasekhara Varman. He founded the Second Chera Kingdom with capital was at Tiruvanchikkulam (Mahodayapuram). The next ruler Rajasekhara Varma has been identified with famous Saivite saint Cheraman Perumal "Nayanar". The relations between Cholas and Cheras were very friendly during there decades. Chera ruler Sthanu Ravi Varman even helped the Cholas with an army to fight against the Pallavas. The royal court of Sthanu Ravi Varman was adorned by the famous astronomer Sankaranarayana and there was an observatory at the capital city Mahodayapuram.

The annexation of the Ay kingdom into the Chera kingdom by King Goda Ravi Varma created tensions between the Cholas and Cheras. The Cheras further provoked the Cholas by granting political asylum the Pandya ruler Maravarman Rajasimha. During the reign of King Indu Kotha Varma Chola emperor Parantaka Chola invaded and annexed the north-western parts of the Kongunadu. This area was ruled by a relatives of the Mahodayapuram Cheras called Kongu Cheras. Immediately, the Chera army joined with Pandyas in their fight against the Cholas.

King Bhaskara Ravi Varman I issued the famous Jewish Copper Plate conferring a Jewish chief. The prolonged Chola-Chera war ("Hundred Years War") began during the era of Bhaskara Ravi Varman. Emperor Raja Raja Chola (985-1016 AD) defeated the Chera armies at multiple locations (such as at Kandalur, Vizhinjam, probably at Quilon, Mahodayapuram-Udagai etc.) in the their kingdom. The Cholas had annexed the whole of southern Travancore south of Kuzhithara from the Cheras by the end of Raja Raja Chola's rule. During the time of Emperor Rajendra Chola, the Chera regained southern Travancore and sent an army to Sri Lanka to help them against the Cholas. But, soon the Cholas sacked Vizhinjam and Kandalur and advanced into Malabar by Palghat pass. In the following battle at Mahodayapuram, King Bhaskara Ravi Varman I along with his numerous generals and chiefs was killed. But, the Cholas failed to bring the whole Chera kingdom under their control. Only regions south of Trivandrum continued under Chola hegemony. Cheras under King Vira Kerala rebelled against the Cholas in 1028 AD. But, Cholas suppressed the uprising and won several victories in campaigns ensued. Vira Kerala was captured and executed, ruler of Venadu and the Mushaka chief of Iramakutam were killed. The prolonged wars had weakened the Chera power considerably. Some chiefs (called "Naduvazhis") took advantage of the chaotic opportunity and asserted their independence.

Later, the Cholas established supremacy over vast regions of the Chera kingdom. The Cheras acknowledged the supremacy of the Cholas, but made sustained efforts to to re-establish themselves. Finally, the Cheras reorganized their defences and became completely free of Chola control. The Cheras also helped the Pandyas to recover their territories from the Cholas. The Chola Emperor Kulattunga Chola defeated the Pandyas in retaliation and attacked the Chera kingdom (at Kandalur, Vizhinjam, Quilon, Mahodayapuram). The newly crowned King Rama Varma Kulasekhara faced with an unprecedented and chaotic crisis. He transformed large body of his army to suicide squads (known as "the Chavers") and resisted heroically. After the sacking of Mahodayapuram, he shifted his capital to Quilon. Finally the Cholas were defeated and forced to withdraw to the south. The retreat marked the virtual end of Chola domination in Kerala. Rama Varma Kulasekhara seems to have abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kotha Varma and retired from public life.

Venadu Kingdom (Quilon)

Main article: Venad

King Kotha Varma (1102-1125) probably conquered Kottar and portions of Nanjanadu from the Pandyas. Under the reign of Vira Ravi Varma the system of government became very efficient, and village assemblies functioned vigorously. Udaya Marthanda Varma's tenure was noted for the close relationship between the Venadu and Pandyas. By the time of Ravi Kerala Varma (1215-1240), Odanadu Kingdom had acknowledged the authority of the Venadu rulers. The next Venadu ruler Padmanabha Marthanda Varma is alleged to have been killed by Vikrama Pandya in 1264 AD.

Probably, the Pandyas led a successful military expedition to Venadu and captured the capital city of Quilon between 1250 to 1300 AD. The records of Jatavarman Sundara Pandya and Maravarman Kulasekhara Pandya testify the establishment of Pandya rule over Venadu.

The death of the celebrated King Jayasimha initiated a civil war in Venadu. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, the last of the Venadu kings came to throne according to patrilineal system, came out successful in this battles. Ravi Varma ruled Venadu as a vassal of the Pandyas till the death of King Maravarman Kulasekhara. But, after death of the king he became independent and even claimed the throne of the Pandyas (Ravi Varma had married the daughter of deceased Pandya ruler). He later annexed large parts of southern India and raised Venadu to the position of a powerful military state for a short time. The chaotic situation in the Pandya kingdom helped his conquests. The Venadu ruler invaded Pandya kingdom and defeated the prince Vira Pandya. After annexing the entire Pandya state, he crowned as "Emperor of South India" in 1312 at Madurai. He later annexed Tiruvati and Kanchi (the Chola Kingdom). Under Ravi Varma Venadu attained a high degree of economic prosperity.

List of rulers

Second Chera rulers

• According to Prof. Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai;
  • Kulashekhara Varman (800–820 AD)
  • Rajashekhara Varman (820- 844 AD)
  • Sthanu Ravi Varman (844- 885 AD)
  • Rama Varma Kulashekhara (885- 917 AD)
  • Goda Ravi Varma (917- 944 AD)
  • Indu Kotha Varma (944- 962 AD)
  • Bhaskara Ravi Varman I (962- 1019 AD)
  • Bhaskara Ravi Varman II (1019- 1021 AD)
  • Vira Kerala (1021- 1028 AD)
  • Rajasimha (1028- 1043 AD)
  • Bhaskara Ravi Varman III (1043–1082 AD)
  • Ravi Rama Varma (1082-1090 AD)
  • Rama Varma Kulashekhara (1090- 1102 AD)

• According to Prof. M. G. S. Narayanan;
  • Rama Rajasekhara (800-844 AD)
  • Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara (844-883 AD)
  • Kota Ravi Vijayaraga (883-913)
  • Kota Kota Kerala Kesari (913-943 AD)
  • Indu Kota (943-962 AD)
  • Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladilya (962-1021)
  • Ravi Kota Rajasimha (1021-1036 AD)
  • Raja Raja (1036-1089 AD)
  • Ravi Rama Rajaditya (1036-1089 AD)
  • Aditya Kota Ranaditya (1036-1089 AD)
  • Rama Kulasekhara (1089-1122 AD)

See also

• History of Tamil Nadu
• Cheraman Perumal
• Mukundamala
• Kodungallur

Middle kingdoms of India
Timeline:	Northwestern India	Northern India	Southern India	Northeastern India
6th century BCE  5th century BCE  4th century BCE  3rd century BCE  2nd century BCE  1st century BCE  1st century CE  2nd century  3rd century  4th century  5th century  6th century  7th century  8th century  9th century 10th century 11th century	Gandhara (Persian rule) (Greek conquests) Indo-Greeks Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Kushan Empire Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites (Islamic conquests) Shahi (Islamic Empire)	Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Harsha Gurjara Pratihara Pala Empire Solanki Eastern Ganga dynasty Sena dynasty	Pandyas Cholas Cheras Satavahana Empire Kalabhras Kadamba Dynasty Gangas Pallava Chalukya Rashtrakuta Western Chalukyas Hoysala Empire	Kamarupa Kingdom

References

• Mahavidwan R.Raghava Iyengar, Vanjimanagar (1918, 1932) University of Madras
• Inscriptions of India – Complete listing of historical inscriptions from Indian temples and monuments
• Tamil Coins, R. Nagasamy – http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html
• A magnum opus on Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions – Book review – http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm
• Mahavamsa – http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/
• Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II – http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.htm
• Asoka's Rock Edicts – http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/AshokanEdicts/rockedicts.htm