Sino-Persian relations

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Iran-China relations
Map indicating locations of Iran and China

Iran
China

Sino-Persian relations (Chinese: 中伊关系, Pinyin: Zhōng-Yī guānxì), or Sino-Iranian relations, refers to the historic diplomatic, cultural and economic relations between the cultures of China proper and Greater Iran, dating back to ancient times. The ancient Parthians and Sassanid empires (occupying much of present Iran and Central Asia) had various contacts with the Han and Tang Dynasty empires occupying what is now the People's Republic of China. The two lands were further connected via the Silk Road.

Contents

[edit] Etymological exchange

The transmission of knowledge and materials between the two cultures during ancient times can still be seen in the Persian roots in Chinese loan words. These words typically come from the dialects of the Elamites:[1][2][3]

Chinese terms and their Persian roots
Term Chinese Pinyin Persian root Persian Romanization
Lion 獅/狮 shī شیر Shia
Alfalfa 苜蓿 mù-xǖ buksuk
Grapes 葡萄/蒲桃 pú táo budāwa or buda
Pomegranate (安)石榴 (ān) shí líu آرتساخ Arsak
Amber 琥珀 hǔpò کهربا keherba

[edit] Relations

[edit] Parthian era

The 138–126 BCE travels of Zhang Qian to the West, Mogao Caves, 618–712 CE mural.

The Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited the neighbouring countries of Bactria and Sogdiana in 126 BCE, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named "Ānxī" (Chinese: 安息), a transliteration of "Arsacid", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, which he equates to those of Dayuan (in Ferghana) and Daxia (in Bactria).

"Anxi is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi (in Transoxonia). The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania)." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial relations between China, Central Asia, and Parthia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BCE: "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members… In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).

The Parthians were apparently very intent on maintaining good relations with China and also sent their own embassies, starting around 110 BC: "When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom… When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them… The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Parthians also played a role in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism from Central Asia to China. An Shih Kao, a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist missionary, went to the Chinese capital Luoyang in 148 CE where he established temples and became the first man to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

[edit] Sassanid era

Sassanid influence reached beyond their own borders. In this depiction from Qizil, Tarim Basin China, The "Tocharian donors", are dressed in Sassanid style.

Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanid Empire maintained active foreign relations with China, and ambassadors from Persia frequently travelled to China. Chinese documents record thirteen Sassanid embassies to China. Commercially, land and sea trade with China was important to both the Sassanid and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanid coins have been found in southern China, confirming maritime trade.

On various occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court. Both empires benefited from trade along the Silk Road, and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.

During the Liang Dynasty in China, in 547 a Persian embassy paid tribute to the Liang, amber was recorded as originating from Persia by the Liang Shu (Book of Liang).[4]

There are record of several joint Sassanid and Chinese efforts against their common Hephtalite enemy. Following encroachments by the nomadic Turkic on states in Central Asia, we also see what looks like a collaboration between Chinese and Sassanid forces to repel the Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh also note the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of Sogdiana at the time of the Arab invasions.

Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, Pirooz, son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court.[5] Both Piroz and his son Narsieh (Chinese neh-shie) were given high titles at the Chinese court.[5] At least in two occasions, last one possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Pirooz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne with mixed results, one possibly ending up in a short rule of Pirooz in Sistan (Sakestan) from which we have a few remaining numismatic evidence. Narsieh later attained the position of commander of the Chinese imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes.[5]

[edit] Islamic era

Tang sancai vase displaying Central Asian and Persian influence. 8-9th century. Guimet Museum.

After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia continued to flourish during the Islamic Golden Age and its relations with China continued. In 751, the Abbasid Caliphate which ruled Persia was in dispute with the Tang Dynasty of China for control of the Syr Darya region during the Battle of Talas. The commander of the Abbasid army was Zayid ibn Salih, a Persian, while the commanders of the Tang army were Gao Xianzhi, a Goguryo Korean, alongside Li Siye and Duan Xiushi, both Chinese. After the Abbasids won the battle, relations improved and there were no more conflicts between China and the Persians.

During the Tang Dynasty, communities of Persian-speaking merchants, known as Bosi (波斯), formed in northwestern China's major trade centers.[6] Iranian girls were in demand as dancers in China during this period.[citation needed] In the Tang dynasty inns were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.[citation needed] Dancers were sent as gifts, and whirl dances were often performed by Iranian girls.[citation needed]

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907-960), there is an example of a Chinese emperor having a Persian woman as concubine.[7]

The young Chinese Emperor Liu Chang of the Southern Han dynasty kept a harem, including one Persian girl he nicknamed Mei Zhu, which means "beautiful pearl" (媚珠).[8][9] During the first year of his reign, he was not over sixteen years old when he had a taste for intercourse with Persian girls.[10] Liu liked the Persian girl (Mei Zhu) because of her brown skin color, described in French as "peau mate" (olive or light brown skinned). He and the Persian girl also liked to forced young couples to go naked and played with them in the palace.[11][12]

From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing mulitiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[13][14] It was recorded that "The Po- ssu-fu at Kuang-chou make holes all round their ears. There are some who wear more than twenty ear-rings."[15] Descriptions of the sexual activities between Liu Chang and the Persian woman in the Song dynasty book the "Ch'ing-i-lu" by T'ao Ku were so graphic that the "Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2" refused to provide any quotes from it while discussing the subject.[16] Liu had free time with the Persian women by delegating the task of governing to others.[17] Multiple women originating from the Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu).[18] During the Five Dynasties 五代 (907-959), Liu Chang 劉鋹, king of the Nan-han 南漢, had in his harem a young Persian woman, whom he doted upon so much[19] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".[20] Liu nicknaed the Persian girl Mei Zhu, which means "Beautiful Sow"(美豬). Liu liked the Persian girl (Mei Zhu) because of her dark brown skin color. He and the Persian girl also liked to forced young couples to go naked and played with them in the palace.[21][22]and he favored her by "doting" on her. During the first year of his reign, he was not over sixteen years old when he had a taste for intercourse with Persian girls.[10] The Persian girl was called a "princess".[23] Liu had free time with the Persian women by delegating the task of governing to others.[17]

The Wu Tai Shï says that Liu Ch'ang (劉鋹, Emperor of the Southern Han dynasty reigning at Canton, about A.D. 970) "was dallying with his palace girls and Persian [波斯] women in the inner apartments, and left the government of his state to the ministers."[24][25][26] The History of the Five Dynasties (Wu Tai Shih) stated that- "Liu Chang then with his court- ladies and Po-ssu woman, indulged in amorous affiurs in the harem".[27]


A large number of Central Asian and Persian soldiers, experts, and artisans were recruited by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty of China. Some of them, known as semu ("assorted officials") occupied important official posts in the Yuan state administration.[28] One of the most famous settlers from Persia was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who is identified as an ancestor of many Chinese Hui lineages and that of Yunnan's Panthay Hui population. His most famous descendant was Zheng He,[citation needed] who became the Ming dynasty's most famous explorer.

Relations continued during the Ming Dynasty.

The famous Maragheh observatory in Maragheh, Iran, is also known to have had some Chinese astronomers working there alongside Islamic astronomers, and some Islamic astronomical instruments were also being used by astronomers in China.[29] Safavid Iranian art was also partly influenced by Chinese art to an extent. Shah Abbas[disambiguation needed ] had hundreds of Chinese artisans in his capital Esfahan. 300 Chinese potters produced glazed tile buildings, and hundreds of others produced metalwork, miniature paintings, calligraphy, glasswork, tile work, and pottery.[30]

Of the Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[31][32]

[edit] People's Republic of China and Islamic Republic of Iran

Main article: People's Republic of China – Iran relations

Diplomatic links between China and Iran have been maintained into the 20th and 21st centuries with the formation of both the People's Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Iran, in 1949 and 1979 respectively.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Miao, Ruiqin (December 2005), "Loanword Adaptation in Mandarin Chinese: Perceptual,Phonological and Sociolinguistic Factors", Doctoral Dissertation (Stony Brook University), http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/814-0306/814-MIAO-0-0.PDF 
  2. ^ Feng, Zhiwei (March 2004), "The Semantic Loanwords and Phonemic Loanwords in Chinese Language", 11th International Symposium of NIJLA (Tokyo): 200-229, http://www.lingviko.net/feng/loanword-zwfeng.pdf 
  3. ^ Zhan, Zheng-sheng, "Language Contact", Chinese 352: Aspects of Chinese Language, http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/chinese/aspect/contact.HTM 
  4. ^ Maurice Fishberg (1907). Materials for the physical anthropology of the eastern European Jews, Issues 1-6 (reprint ed.). New Era Print. Co.. p. 233. http://books.google.com/books?id=pfIQnqoQz0oC&pg=PA233&dq=shu+han+persia&hl=en&ei=ZfjjTbadEqPr0gHn1dmvBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=shu%20han%20persia&f=false. Retrieved 12 June 2011. 
  5. ^ a b c A History of chinese civilization, Jacques Gernet.
  6. ^ Lipman 1997, pp. 24–31
  7. ^ Maria Jaschok, Jingjun Shui (2000). The history of women's mosques in Chinese Islam: a mosque of their own. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0700713026. http://books.google.com/books?id=jV9_YvgUmpsC&pg=PA74&dq=wudai+emperors+preferred+to+marry+persian+women+song+families+marry+women+from+arabia&hl=en&ei=5TwuTKeWL4T7lwfJwbnhCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=wudai%20emperors%20preferred%20to%20marry%20persian%20women%20song%20families%20marry%20women%20from%20arabia&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
  8. ^ Lombard-Salmon Claudine (2004). Les Persans à l'extrémité orientale de la route maritime (IIe A.E. -XVIIe siècle). Archipel. Volume 68. p. 40. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/arch_0044-8613_2004_num_68_1_3830?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&. Retrieved 03 mars 2011. 
  9. ^ Société pour l'étude et la connaissance du monde insulindien, Association Archipel, Centre de documentatio et de recherches sur l'Asie du Sud-Est et le monde indonésien, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (France), Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales, École des hautes études en sciences sociales (2004). Archipel, Issues 67-68. SECMI.. p. 40. http://books.google.com/books?id=4ixuAAAAMAAJ&q=Les+chroniques+52+gardent+le+souvenir+d'une+dame+persane+qui+%C3%A9tait+dans+le+harem+du+quatri%C3%A8me+et+dernier+souverain,+Liu+Chang+glJH+(959-971).+Les+d%C3%A9buts+du+commerce+international+sur+le+territoire+des+souverains+de+l'%C3%89tat+de+...&dq=Les+chroniques+52+gardent+le+souvenir+d'une+dame+persane+qui+%C3%A9tait+dans+le+harem+du+quatri%C3%A8me+et+dernier+souverain,+Liu+Chang+glJH+(959-971).+Les+d%C3%A9buts+du+commerce+international+sur+le+territoire+des+souverains+de+l'%C3%89tat+de+...&hl=en&ei=0i5vTebHJoK8lQeTxJxf&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA. Retrieved 2011-3-03. 
  10. ^ a b 文人誤會：宋真宗寫錯了一個字（5）
  11. ^ Roger Darrobers (1998) (in French). Opéra de Pékin: théâtre et société à la fin de l'empire sino-mandchou. Bleu de Chine. p. 31. ISBN 2910884198. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Ryr6TvO6G4LX0QHWuf2UAg&id=oQZlAAAAMAAJ&dq=L%27expression+trouvait+son+origine+sous+le+r%C3%A8gne+de+Liu+Chang+%28958-971%29%2C+ultime+souverain+des+Han+du+sud+%28917-971%29%2C+...+Il+avait+pour+favorite+une+Persane+de+seize+ans%2C+%C3%A0+la+peau+mate+et+aux+formes+opulentes%2C+d%27une+extr%C3%AAme+sensualit%C3%A9&q=persane+seize+ans. Retrieved January 4, 2012. "L'expression trouvait son origine sous le règne de Liu Chang (958-971), ultime souverain des Han du sud (917-971), un des États apparus dans la Chine du nord après la chute des Tang, avant que les Song ne réalisent pour leur propre... Liu Chang se rallia au nouveau pouvoir qui lui conféra le titre de Marquis de la Bienveillante Amnistie 17. Son règne a laissé le souvenir de ses nombreuses dépravations. S'en remettant aux eunuques pour gouverner, il prenait plaisir à assister aux ébats de jeunes personnes entièrement dévêtues. Il avait pour favorite une Persane de seize ans, à la peau mate et aux formes opulentes, d'une extrême sensualité qu'il avait lui-même surnommée « Meizhu » (« Jolie Truie »). Il déambulait en sa compagnie parmi les couples s'ébattant dans les jardins du palais, spectacle baptisé « corps en duo », on rapporte qu'il aimait voir la Persanne livrée à d'autres partenaires 18." Original from the University of Michigan
  12. ^ (in French) Archipel, Issues 67-68. SECMI.. 2004. p. 40. http://books.google.com/books?id=4ixuAAAAMAAJ&q=Les+chroniques+52+gardent+le+souvenir+d'une+dame+persane+qui+%C3%A9tait+dans+le+harem+du+quatri%C3%A8me+et+dernier+souverain,+Liu+Chang+glJH+(959-971).+Les+d%C3%A9buts+du+commerce+international+sur+le+territoire+des+souverains+de+l'%C3%89tat+de+Min+sont&dq=Les+chroniques+52+gardent+le+souvenir+d'une+dame+persane+qui+%C3%A9tait+dans+le+harem+du+quatri%C3%A8me+et+dernier+souverain,+Liu+Chang+glJH+(959-971).+Les+d%C3%A9buts+du+commerce+international+sur+le+territoire+des+souverains+de+l'%C3%89tat+de+Min+sont&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xSn6TpPSJarg0QGbuZWwAg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA. Retrieved January 4, 2012. "Les chroniques 52 gardent le souvenir d'une dame persane qui était dans le harem du quatrième et dernier souverain, Liu Chang glJH (959-971). Les débuts du commerce international sur le territoire des souverains de l'État de Min sont" Original from the University of Michigan
  13. ^ Walter Joseph Fischel (1951). Walter Joseph Fischel. ed. Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949. Volume 11 of University of California publications in Semitic philology. University of California Press. p. 407. http://books.google.com/books?id=FTcGAQAAIAAJ&dq=At+least+from+the+tenth+to+the+twelfth+century%2C+Persian+women+were+to+be+found+in+Canton%2C+in+the+former+period+observed+among+the+inmates+of+the+harem+of+Liu+Ch%27ang%2C+Emperor+of+Southern+Han%2C%272+and+in+the+latter+seen+as+typically+wearing+great+numbers+of+earrings+and+cursed+with+quarrelsome+dispositions.&q=inmates+harem. Retrieved January 4 2012. "At least from the tenth to the twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Canton, in the former period observed among the inmates of the harem of Liu Ch'ang, Emperor of Southern Han,'2 and in the latter seen as typically wearing great numbers of earrings and cursed with quarrelsome dispositions." 
  14. ^ Walter Joseph Fischel, ed. (1951). Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949. Volume 11 of University of California publications in Semitic philology. University of California Press. p. 407. http://books.google.com/books?id=MLISAAAAIAAJ&dq=At+least+from+the+tenth+to+the+twelfth+century%2C+Persian+women+were+to+be+found+in+Canton%2C+in+the+former+period+observed+among+the+inmates+of+the+harem+of+Liu+Ch%27ang%2C+Emperor+of+Southern+Han%2C%272+and+in+the+latter+seen+as+typically+wearing+great+numbers+of+earrings+and+cursed+with+quarrelsome+dispositions.&q=inmates+harem. Retrieved January 4 2012. "At least from the tenth to the twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Canton, in the former period observed among the inmates of the harem of Liu Ch'ang, Emperor of Southern Han,'2 and in the latter seen as typically wearing great numbers of earrings and cursed with quarrelsome dispositions." 
  15. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. The Toyo Bunko. p. 52. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eyT6Tve0GePd0QGJn_n8Cg&id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&dq=659%29%2C+and+after+the+conquest+of+the+Saracens%2C+the+Moslem+ladies+had+a+still+stronger+passion+for+the&q=ear+rings+conquest+saracens. Retrieved January 4 2012. "17) Concerning the Po-sm-fu $L $f M, ie. the Persian women, Chttang Ch'o 3£$# towards the beginning of the South Sung, in his Chi-lei-pien WM, says: "The Po- ssu-fu at Kuang-chou make holes all round their ears. There are some who wear more than twenty ear-rings." M jW Hfc Sf £w. ... The ear-rings were much in fashion among the Persians in the reign of Sasan ( Spiegee, Erani^e/ie Alterthumskunde, Bd. Ill, s. 659), and after the conquest of the Saracens, the Moslem ladies had a still stronger passion for them (Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, p. 102)." Original from the University of Michigan ()
  16. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. The Toyo Bunko. p. 55. http://books.google.com/books?id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&q=In+the+Ch'ing-i-lu+m+%C2%BB%C2%BB(ed.+of+ttl%26fFSSO+attributed+to+T'AO+Ku+ft+ft+towards+the+beginning+of+the+North+Sung+era,+we+have+a+minute+description+of+Liu+Chang's+licentious+conduct+with+the+Po-ssu+woman,+but+decency+would+forbid+as+to+give+quotations+from+the+book.&dq=In+the+Ch'ing-i-lu+m+%C2%BB%C2%BB(ed.+of+ttl%26fFSSO+attributed+to+T'AO+Ku+ft+ft+towards+the+beginning+of+the+North+Sung+era,+we+have+a+minute+description+of+Liu+Chang's+licentious+conduct+with+the+Po-ssu+woman,+but+decency+would+forbid+as+to+give+quotations+from+the+book.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=tiX6Tp6KJ6Lf0QH4-JSRAg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA. Retrieved Decemer 26 2011. "and did not came out to see governmental business." [IF1] §§71#il5i$S£$l?;£c 3£ (2L« jfe3B,«/S+ a, SiaitB:*). In the Ch'ing-i-lu m »»(ed. of ttl&fFSSO attributed to T'AO Ku ft ft towards the beginning of the North Sung era, we have a minute description of Liu Chang's licentious conduct with the Po-ssu woman, but decency would forbid as to give quotations from the book." Original from the University of Michigan ()
  17. ^ a b Herbert Franke, ed. (1976). Sung biographies, Volume 2. Steiner. p. 620. ISBN 3515024123. http://books.google.com/books?ei=CP75TsiUKufy0gGWyqSLAQ&id=MZQKAQAAIAAJ&dq=But+Liu+was+free+to+spend+his+days+with+the+Persian+girls+in+his+harem%2C+and+to+oversee+the+decoration+of+his+splendid+new+palaces+with+costly+substances.+It+is+said+that+he+used+3+000+taels+of+silver+in+making+a+single+column+of+the&q=persian+girls+harem. Retrieved January 4 2012. "During his reign the number of castrati at the palace increased to about 5 000. Great power was also given to a palace beauty named Liu Ch'iung- hsien JäP) 3^ iA* , and especially to a female shaman Fan Hu-tzu ^ fcfi 3~ , who claimed to. . .But Liu was free to spend his days with the Persian girls in his harem, and to oversee the decoration of his splendid new palaces with costly substances. It is said that he used 3 000 taels of silver in making a single column of the ceremonial hall named Wan-cheng tien" 
  18. ^ . http://books.google.com/books?ei=wwr6TrmhAcW30AHYtMGeAg&id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&dq=63+At+the+foreign+quarter%2C+there+lived+of+course+many+foreign+women%2C+and+they+were+called+by+the+Chinese+Po-ssu-fu+M+%24f+jgf+%28lit.+Persian+women%29%2C1%273+perhaps+because+most+of+them+came+from+near+the+Persian+Gulf.18%29+During+the+Five+Dynasties+3%C2%A3+ft+%28907-959%29%2C+Liu+Chang+H%2C+king+of+the+Nan-han+Wi+Wh%2C+had+in+his+harem+a+young+Persian+woman%2C+whom+he+doted+upon+so+much&q=young+persian+woman. Retrieved January 4 2012. "63 At the foreign quarter, there lived of course many foreign women, and they were called by the Chinese Po-ssu-fu M $f jgf (lit. Persian women),1'3 perhaps because most of them came from near the Persian Gulf.18) During the Five Dynasties 3£ ft (907-959), Liu Chang H, king of the Nan-han Wi Wh, had in his harem a young Persian woman, whom he doted upon so much" 
  19. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. the University of Michigan: The Toyo Bunko. p. 34. http://books.google.com/books?ei=TUtTTZvCLcL6lwfv-rmNCg&ct=result&id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&dq=a+young+Persian+woman%2C+whom+he+doted+upon+so+much&q=persian+woman. Retrieved February 9 2011. 
  20. ^ History of Science Society, Académie internationale d'histoire des sciences (1939). Isis, Volume 30. Publication and Editorial Office, Dept. of History and Sociology of Science, University of Pennsylvania. p. 120. http://books.google.com/books?id=NlEbAAAAMAAJ&q=Arabs+enjoyed+virtually+the+rights+of+extraterritoriality.+They+brought+their+wives+who+were+known+to+the+Chinese+as+%22Persian+women.%22+Emperor+Kiu+Chang+of+the+Five+dynasties+(907-959)+had+a+young+Arabian+woman+in+his+harem&dq=Arabs+enjoyed+virtually+the+rights+of+extraterritoriality.+They+brought+their+wives+who+were+known+to+the+Chinese+as+%22Persian+women.%22+Emperor+Kiu+Chang+of+the+Five+dynasties+(907-959)+had+a+young+Arabian+woman+in+his+harem&hl=en&ei=0HRTTd-2NYL6lwfapcW6Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA. Retrieved February 9 2011. 
  21. ^ Roger Darrobers (1998). Opéra de Pékin: théâtre et société à la fin de l'empire sino-mandchou. Bleu de Chine. p. 31. ISBN 2910884198. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Ryr6TvO6G4LX0QHWuf2UAg&id=oQZlAAAAMAAJ&dq=L%27expression+trouvait+son+origine+sous+le+r%C3%A8gne+de+Liu+Chang+%28958-971%29%2C+ultime+souverain+des+Han+du+sud+%28917-971%29%2C+...+Il+avait+pour+favorite+une+Persane+de+seize+ans%2C+%C3%A0+la+peau+mate+et+aux+formes+opulentes%2C+d%27une+extr%C3%AAme+sensualit%C3%A9&q=persane+seize+ans. Retrieved January 4 2012. "L'expression trouvait son origine sous le règne de Liu Chang (958-971), ultime souverain des Han du sud (917-971), un des États apparus dans la Chine du nord après la chute des Tang, avant que les Song ne réalisent pour leur propre... Liu Chang se rallia au nouveau pouvoir qui lui conféra le titre de Marquis de la Bienveillante Amnistie 17. Son règne a laissé le souvenir de ses nombreuses dépravations. S'en remettant aux eunuques pour gouverner, il prenait plaisir à assister aux ébats de jeunes personnes entièrement dévêtues. Il avait pour favorite une Persane de seize ans, à la peau mate et aux formes opulentes, d'une extrême sensualité qu'il avait lui-même surnommée « Meizhu » (« Jolie Truie »). Il déambulait en sa compagnie parmi les couples s'ébattant dans les jardins du palais, spectacle baptisé « corps en duo », on rapporte qu'il aimait voir la Persanne livrée à d'autres partenaires 18." Original from the University of Michigan
  22. ^ Historical records of the five dynasties (illustrated, annotated ed.). Columbia University Press. 2004. p. 544. ISBN 0231128266. http://books.google.com/books?id=bfbcxM9uJm4C&pg=PA544&dq=Because+court+affairs+were+monopolized+by+Gong+Chengshu+and+cohort,+Liu+Chang+in+the+inner+palace+could+play+his+debauched+games+with+female+attendants,+including+a+Persian.+He+never+again+emerged+to+inquire+of+state+affairs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lf75TquRLKnL0QGxneGPAg&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Because%20court%20affairs%20were%20monopolized%20by%20Gong%20Chengshu%20and%20cohort%2C%20Liu%20Chang%20in%20the%20inner%20palace%20could%20play%20his%20debauched%20games%20with%20female%20attendants%2C%20including%20a%20Persian.%20He%20never%20again%20emerged%20to%20inquire%20of%20state%20affairs&f=false. Retrieved January 4 2012. "Liu Chang, originally named Jixing, had been invested Prince of Wei. . .Because court affairs were monopolized by Gong Chengshu and cohort, Liu Chang in the inner palace could play his debauched games with female attendants, including a Persian. He never again emerged to inquire of state affairs" 
  23. ^ HONG KONG BEFORE THE CHINESE THE FRAME, THE PUZZLE AND THE MISSING PIECES A lecture delivered on 18trh November 1963 by K. M. A. Barnett
  24. ^ Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 24. SHANGHAI: Kelly & Walsh.. 1890. p. 299. http://books.google.com/books?id=LVkDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA299&dq=The+II+w+Tai+Slu+says+that+Liu+Ch'any+%5Bg%7C%5D+%C2%A7g,+Emperor+of+the+Southern+I+Ian+dynasty+reigning+at+Canton,+about+AD+1*70%5D,+%22+was+dallying+with+his+palace+girls+and+Persian+%5B-Jj%C2%A3+%5E)f%5D+%22+women+in+the+inner+apartments,&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Y0f5Tv2sGaPp0gGT_a3sBw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20II%20w%20Tai%20Slu%20says%20that%20Liu%20Ch'any%20%5Bg%7C%5D%20%C2%A7g%2C%20Emperor%20of%20the%20Southern%20I%20Ian%20dynasty%20reigning%20at%20Canton%2C%20about%20AD%201*70%5D%2C%20%22%20was%20dallying%20with%20his%20palace%20girls%20and%20Persian%20%5B-Jj%C2%A3%20%5E)f%5D%20%22%20women%20in%20the%20inner%20apartments%2C&f=false. Retrieved January 4 2012. "The II w Tai Slu says that Liu Ch'any (劉鋹, Emperor of the Southern I Ian dynasty reigning at Canton, about A.D. 970, "was dallying with his palace girls and Persian [波斯] "women in the inner apartments, and left the government of "his state to the ministers.""  Original from the University of Michigan
  25. ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. China Branch (1890). Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year ..., Volumes 24-25. SHANGHAI: The Branch. p. 299. http://books.google.com/books?id=saJDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA299&dq=The+W11+Tut+Shi+says+that+Lin+Ch'niia+%5Bg%7C%5D+%C2%A7J%7C.+Emperor+of+the+Southern+I+Ian+dynasty+reigning+at+Canton,+about+AD+U70%5D,+%22%E2%96%A0+was+dallying+with+his+palace+girls+and+Persian+%5Bjjjj+Jjf%5D+%22+women+in+the+inner+apartments,&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bUz5TqD4F6jq0gG9w82FAg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20W11%20Tut%20Shi%20says%20that%20Lin%20Ch'niia%20%5Bg%7C%5D%20%C2%A7J%7C.%20Emperor%20of%20the%20Southern%20I%20Ian%20dynasty%20reigning%20at%20Canton%2C%20about%20AD%20U70%5D%2C%20%22%E2%96%A0%20was%20dallying%20with%20his%20palace%20girls%20and%20Persian%20%5Bjjjj%20Jjf%5D%20%22%20women%20in%20the%20inner%20apartments%2C&f=false. Retrieved January 4 2012. Original from Princeton University
  26. ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North-China Branch (1889). Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volumes 24-25. Kraus Reprint, Ltd.. p. 299. http://books.google.com/books?ei=8Uf5TvHFEMjd0QGqseWUAg&id=0Lg_AAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Wit+Tut+fi%2Fn+says+that+Lin+Cli%27iiiiy+%5B+%C2%A7lj+JJ%7C%2C+fjinperor+of+the+vSontliern+Han+dynasty+reigning+at+Canton%2C+alxnit+AD+5%2970%5D%2C+%22+was+dallying+with+Iiis+palace+girls+and+Persian+%5Bjjfc+%5E%7B%5D+%22+women+in+the+inner&q=persian+women. Retrieved January 4 2012. "The Wit Tut fi/n says that Lin Cli'iiiiy [ §lj JJ" Original from the University of Virginia
  27. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. The Toyo Bunko. p. 54. http://books.google.com/books?ei=4Sb6Tv6SPIb30gGy74W5Ag&id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&dq=22%29+In+the+Wu-tai-shih-cM+2.%5E+jfc%2C12%2C+we+read%2C+%22Liu+Chang+then+with+his+court-+ladies+and+Po-ssu+woman%2C+indulged+in+amorous+affiurs+in+the+harem+The+names+of+Po-li+i%C2%A3+%3Ef+Il+%28+%3D+P%27o-li+JSiflJ%29+and&q=amorous. Retrieved January 4 2012. "22) In the Wu-tai-shih-cM 2.^ jfc,12, we read, "Liu Chang then with his court- ladies and Po-ssu woman, indulged in amorous affiurs in the harem The names of Po-li i£ >f Il ( = P'o-li JSiflJ) and" Original from the University of Michigan ()
  28. ^ Dillon 1999, pp. 19–21
  29. ^ van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah, History of Oriental Astronomy, Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 19–32, ISBN 1-4020-0657-8 
  30. ^ McDougal Littel, WORLD HISTORY: PATTERNS OF INTERACTION, New York edtition,ISBN 978-0-618-91330-5, ISBN 0-618-91330-0, Pages 514–515
  31. ^ Association for Asian studies (Ann Arbor;Michigan) (1976). A-L, Volumes 1-2. Columbia University Press. p. 817. ISBN 0-231-03801-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=067On0JgItAC&pg=PA817&dq=ch'ang+fond+persian+girl&hl=en&ei=5wEsTJesKMT_lgfR5KHnCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=li%20nu%20married%20an%20arab%20or%20persian%20girl&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
  32. ^ Chen, Da-Sheng. "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranica.com/articles/chinese-iranian-vii. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

  • John W. Garver. China And Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-imperial World. 2006. ISBN 0-295-98631-X
  • "Persian language in Xinjiang" (زبان فارسی در سین کیانگ). Zamir Sa'dollah Zadeh (دکتر ضمیر سعدالله زاد ه). Nameh-i Iran (نامه ایران) V.1. Editor: Hamid Yazdan Parast (حمید یزدان پرست). ISBN 964-423-572-X Perry-Castañeda Library collection under DS 266 N336 2005.
  • John Keefer Douglas, Matthew B. Nelson, and Kevin Schwartz; "Fueling the Dragon's Flame: How China's Energy Demands Affect its Relationships in the Middle East." United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission, October 2006. [1]
  • Chris Zambelis and Brandon Gentry, "China Through Arab Eyes: American Influence in the Middle East", Parameters, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, Spring 2008, pp. 60–72. [2]

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