Chytridiomycosis

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A chytrid-infected frog.
Chytridiomycosis in Atelopus varius - two sporangia containing numerous zoospores are visible

Chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease of amphibians, caused by the chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a non-hyphal zoosporic fungus. Chytridiomycosis has been linked to dramatic population declines or even extinctions of amphibian species in western North America, Central America, South America, eastern Australia, and Dominica and Montserrat in the Caribbean. The fungus is capable of causing sporadic deaths in some amphibian populations and 100% mortality in others. There is no effective measure for control of the disease in wild populations. The disease is contributing to a worldwide decline in amphibian populations, a worldwide decline of species that apparently has affected 30% of the amphibian species of the world.[1].

Contents

[edit] History

It was first discovered in 1993 in dead and dying frogs in Queensland. Research since then has shown that it has been present in the country since at least 1978 and is widespread across Australia. It is also found in Africa, the Americas, Europe, New Zealand and Oceania. In Australia, Panama and New Zealand, the fungus seemed to have just suddenly ‘appeared’ and expanded its range at the same time as when frog numbers declined. However, it may simply be that the fungus occurs naturally and was only identified recently because it has become more virulent or more prevalent in the environment, or because host populations have become less resistant to the disease. The fungus has been detected in four areas of Australia — the east coast, Adelaide, south-west Western Australia and the Kimberley — and is probably present elsewhere.[2]

The oldest reports of infection of Batrachochytrium were from African clawed frogs of the genus Xenopus. Because Xenopus has been widely transported around the world, it is one potential vector for transmission of B. dendrobatidis.[3] Other studies, however, suggest that B. dendrobatidis has been present in North and Central America for decades. It is still not clear if it is a new emergent pathogen or if it is an old pathogen with recently increased virulence.

[edit] Disease Progression

Chytridiomycosis is believed to adhere to the following course: zoospores first encounter amphibian skin and quickly give rise to sporangia, which produce new zoospores [4]. The disease then progresses as these new zoospores reinfect the host. Morphological changes of amphibians infected with the fungus include a reddening of the ventral skin, convulsions with extension of hind limbs, accumulations of sloughed skin over the body, sloughing of the superficial epidermis of the feet and other areas, slight roughening of the surface with minute skin tags, and occasional small ulcers or hemorrhage. Behavioral changes can include lethargy, a failure to seek shelter, a failure to flee, a loss of righting reflex, and abnormal posture (i.e. sitting with the hind legs away from the body) [5]

[edit] Research

Laboratory studies suggest that the fungus performs poorly above 28 °C (82 °F),[6] and that exposure of infected frogs to high temperatures will kill the fungus[7]. This may explain why chytridiomycosis-induced amphibian declines occur primarily in cool regions, like mountain chains.

Although many declines have been credited to the fungus B. dendrobatidis, there are species that resist the infection and some reports have found that some populations can survive with a low level of persistence of the disease.[8] In addition, some species that seem to resist the infection may actually harbor a non-pathogenic form of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.

Some researchers contend that the focus on chytridiomycosis has made amphibian conservation efforts dangerously myopic. In Guatemala, for example, several thousands of tadpoles perished from an unidentified pathogen distinct from B. dendrobatidis [9]. Such researchers stress the need for a broader understanding of the host-parasite ecology that is contributing to the modern day amphibian declines.

[edit] Treatment options

It was reported in the June 8, 2009 issue of New Scientist that Reid Harris of James Madison University has found that coating frogs with Janthinobacterium lividum appears to protect them from chytridiomycosis.[10]

Archey's frog Leiopelma archeyi, a critically endangered species endemic to New Zealand, was successfully cured of chytridiomycosis by applying chloramphenicol topically.[11]

[edit] Relevance to Global Warming

The spread of chytridiomycosis and the subsequent declines of amphibian populations has been dramatically expedited by global warming. For example, in the Monteverde cloud forest of Costa Rica, the temperatures inside sunlit moss mats, bromeliads, and leaf litter can exceed 30 degrees Celsius, a temperature beyond the survival parameters of B. dendrobatidis [12]. However, global warming in the region accelerates evaporation, thus raising the air's capacity to hold water. The increased water vapor capacity subsequently enhances the cloud cover over the region, which influences surface temperatures. Furthermore, increased cloud cover shuts down radiant heating, reduces heat loss at night, and forces thermal environments to mirror ambient conditions, which happen to greatly favor chytrid vitality.[citation needed] Moreover, studies in Europe have shown that there is a significant association between alteration in local climatic variables and the incidence of chytridiomycosis within this region. It was observed that rising temperature is linked to the occurrence of chytrid-related disease in consistence with the chytrid-thermal-optimum hypothesis.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Stuart, S. N., J. S. Chanson, et al. (2004). "Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide." Science 306: 1783-1786.
  2. ^ http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/c-disease/pubs/c-disease.pdf
  3. ^ Origin of Amphibian Chytrid Fungus | CDC EID
  4. ^ Berger, L., Hyatt, A.D., Speare, R. & Longcore, J.E. Dis. Aquat. Org. 68, 51-63 (2005).
  5. ^ http://ccadc.us/docs/AmphibianDiseaseBrochure.pdf
  6. ^ Berger, L., R. Speare, et al. (2004). "Effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis." Australian Veterinary Journal 82: 31-36.
  7. ^ Woodhams, D. C., R. A. Alford, et al. (2003). "Emerging disease of amphibians cured by elevated body temperature." Diseases of aquatic organisms 55: 65-67.
  8. ^ Retallick, R. W. R., H. McCallum, et al. (2004). "Endemic Infection of the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus in a Frog Community Post-Decline." PLoS Biology 2(11): e351.
  9. ^ Di Rosa, Ines et al. "The Proximate Cause of Frog Declines?" Nature 447.31 (2007) E4-E5.
  10. ^ Probiotic bug is a frog lifesaver, Linda Geddes, New Scientist, Issue 2711, June 8, 2009
  11. ^ Elimination of the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis by Archey’s frog Leiopelma archeyi, Phillip J. Bishop, Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, Vol. 84: 9–15, 2009 doi: 10.3354/dao02028
  12. ^ Pounds, J. Alan et al. "Widespread Amphibian Extinctions from Epidemic Deisease Driven by Global Warming." Nature 439.12 (2006) 161-67

[edit] External links

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