Civil war in Afghanistan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
Civil war in Afghanistan
Date 1978 - present (conflict still ongoing)
Location Afghanistan
Result Ongoing
Casualties and losses
1,500,000–2,000,000 civilians dead[1]
v • d • e
Civil war in Afghanistan

The Civil war in Afghanistan (1978–present), also known as the Afghan Civil War and several other names, is a civil war in Afghanistan. The civil war started when an insurgency broke out against the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, which had taken power in the Saur Revolution on 27 April 1978. This event led indirectly to the Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan.

The new government met with hostility, which led to the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Afghanistan's anti-government rebels, known as the mujahideen (those engaged in Jihad), found support from a variety of countries including the United States, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and other Muslim nations. The final Soviet troop withdrawal began on May 15, 1988, and ended on February 15, 1989. Three years after the withdraw, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan collapsed to the mujahideen resistance. Taliban rose to power after the fall of Kabul in 1996.

In 2001, NATO led by American and British forces invaded Afghanistan as part of the War on Terror, the name of the operation is Operation Enduring Freedom. The stated purpose of the invasion was to capture Osama bin Laden, destroy al-Qaeda, and remove the Taliban regime which had provided support and safe harbor to al-Qaeda. The United States' Bush Doctrine stated that, as policy, it would not distinguish between al-Qaeda and nations that harbor them.

Contents

[edit] Timeline

[edit] Start — Rise and fall of communism

Main articles: People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, Saur Revolution, Soviet war in Afghanistan, Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan, and Civil war in Afghanistan (1989-1992)
A Soviet Spetsnaz (special operations) group prepares for a mission in Afghanistan, 1988.

The emperor of Afghanistan, Shah Mohammed Zahir Shah, was overthrown in 1973 by his cousin Mohammed Daoud Khan who established the Daoud Republic of Afghanistan. He proclaimend himself leader of the new republic but in 1978 a military coup d'état with help from the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) rose to power after the Saur Revolution in April the same the year. The country's and party's first communist leader in Afghanistan, Nur Mohammad Taraki was assassinated by fellow communist Hafizullah Amin.[2]

Amin, was known for his independent and nationalist inclinations, and was also seen by many as a ruthless leader. He has been accused of killing thousands of Afghan civilians. The Soviet Union looked at him as a threat for communism in Afghanistan and Soviet Central Asia. In December, 1979 Amin was assassinated by the Soviet soldiers killing Amin and his 200 guards. After the assassination the Soviet army swept into Afghanistan, while the Soviet government forced Babrak Karmal to leave Czechoslovakia, where he was Afghan ambassador, to return to Afghanistan as the new leader of Afghanistan. Karmal's leadership was seen as a failure by the Soviet Union because of the rise of violence and crime under his leadership, he was replaced with Mohammad Najibullah who was able to cling to power until 1992 three years after the withdrawal of the Soviet army.[3]

The Soviet government realized early on that a military solution to the conflict could not work. Because of this they had discussions about troop withdrawal and the search for a political peaceful solution as early as 1980. But they never took any serious steps in that direction until 1988. Early Soviet military reports confirms the difficulties the Soviet army had while fighting on the mountainous terrain, for which the Soviet Army had no training whatsoever. Parallels between the Vietnam War was frequently referred to by Soviet army officers.[4]

Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan

The whole time during the Soviet withdrawal over the border troop convoys were coming under attack by Afghan fighters. In all 523 Soviet soldiers were killed during the withdrawal. The total withdrawal of all Soviet troops from Afghanistan was completed in February, 1989.[5]

Soviet soldier in Afghanistan, 1988

The last Soviet soldier to leave was Lieutenant General Boris Gromov leader of the Soviet military operations in Afghanistan at the time of the Soviet invasion.[6]

After the Soviet withdrawal, the Republic of Afghanistan continued to deal with attacks from the Mujahideen. They received funding and arms from the Soviet Union until 1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed.[7] For several years the government army had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence. But the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the Mujahideen in 1992 and together they captured the city of Kabul.

[edit] Mujahideen divides

Main article: Civil war in Afghanistan (1992-1996)

After taking power, the unity of the Mujahideen evaporated and fighting began between them. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar was blamed for a devastating rocket attack on Kabul, prompting Dostum to launch a campaign against him. Dostum later joined forces with Hekmatyar and fighting destroyed much of Kabul as the nation was split along ethnic lines. In 1994, the Taliban Movement was formed in southern Afghanistan with Pakistani support. It made rapid gains for the next two years against both Dostum and Tajik commander Ahmad Shah Massoud; in 1996 the Taliban took the capital.

[edit] Taliban control

Main article: Civil war in Afghanistan (1996-2001)
The official flag of the Taliban

After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban on September 27, 1996,[8] Uzbek General Dostum joined forces with the Tajik Ahmed Shah Massoud to form the Northern Alliance, a grouping of non-Pashtun militias that aimed to defeat the Pashtun Taliban.[9] Both parties espoused Islamic fundamentalism, and wished to impose Sharia law in the country. The Northern Alliance began to get funding and arms from Russia and Iran, who both feared the Taliban's growing influence, while the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Saudi Arabia backed the Taliban as ideological allies. Pakistan also backed the Taliban, as they were viewed as the only capable group of bringing peace to Afghanistan - a goal which would allow Pakistan to open trade ties with the Central Asian republics, while at the same time allowing for the return of the some 3 million Afghans who had taken refuge in Pakistan.

In October 1996, the Taliban began to strike points north of Kabul with jets and artillery while Dostum and Massoud massed forces in preparation for an offensive.[10] On October 19, the alliance pushed forward with tanks, armored personnel carriers, and heavy weapons into the Bagram airbase, which was the first major victory against the Taliban since they lost Kabul.[11] They continued their advance and vowed to retake Kabul, with Massoud's front line commander stating "God willing, we will be in Kabul today or tomorrow."[12] But fighting raged for several days, and the lack of a major breakthrough forced the Alliance to withdraw to northern positions.[13]

In 1997 the Taliban began an offensive against the territories held by General Dostum that caused some of his forces, led by General Abdul Malik, to rebel and join the Taliban on May 20.[14] This led him to flee Afghanistan, leaving much of his army behind, and seek refuge in Uzbekistan. The newly Taliban-friendly forces handed over the city of Mazari Sharif to the Taliban. Soon, however, their strict stance against Shiite Muslims led to a confrontation between Hazara militias and the Taliban. In intense fighting in the city of Mazar-i-Sharif, the Taliban were defeated, and 3,000 of their soldiers were captured and executed. The forces of Massoud attempted another push towards the capital. After making gains north of the capital, they once again met heavy resistance in Kabul.[15] The Taliban continued to push into the Alliance's territory, however, and reached Mazar-i-Sharif, taking it again by August 8, 1998. Upon taking it, they began a mass killing of the locals; 4,000 to 5,000 civilians were executed, and many more reported tortured.[16] This offensive by the Taliban left them in control of 90% of the nation.

Taliban fighters in Zabul province, southern Afghanistan

Also among those killed in Mazari Sharif were several Iranian diplomats. Others were kidnapped by the Taliban, touching off a hostage crisis that nearly escalated to a full scale war, with 250,000 Iranian soldiers massed on the Afghan border at one time.[17] It was later admitted that the diplomats were killed by the Taliban, and their bodies were returned to Iran.[18] In September the Taliban claimed that Iran violated its airspace, and later Iran claimed minor clashes occurred between the Taliban and Iran after it led a raid into eastern Iran, though the Taliban denied it led the raid.[19][20] Eventually with UN mediation, the tensions cooled. The Taliban continued to push north, making gains against the Northern Alliance in 1999. At one time they held roughly 95% of the nation and had pushed the Northern Alliance out of range of Kabul entirely.[21]

On September 9, 2001, a suicide bomber, posing as a journalist, blew himself up after gaining access to Ahmed Shah Massoud office. The suicide bomber was killed along with one of Massoud's followers, and the Afghan commander's guards killed the second person posing as a journalist. Massoud was struck in the chest with shrapnel from the bomb, which was either hidden in the camera or concealed around the waist of one of the terrorists. Massoud died shortly after being taken to Tajikistan for emergency care.

The attack left the Northern Alliance leaderless, and removed "the last obstacle to the Taliban’s total control of the country ..."[22] But did not lead to chaos as some had feared. The Northern Alliance held together and would go on to work with the USA and its coalition in Operation Enduring Freedom. At the time of Massoud's assassination, Northern Alliance strength was estimated at 11,000 troops and the Taliban at 45,000.[23]

[edit] War on terror

United States Army soldiers in Kunar province
Main articles: War in Afghanistan (2001–present), War on Terror, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Taliban insurgency

The War on Terror, which began on October 7, 2001 as the United States military operation Operation Enduring Freedom, was launched by the United States and United Kingdom in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks. The purpose for the invasion was stated to capture Osama bin Laden, destroy al-Qaeda, and remove the Taliban regime which had provided support and safe harbor to al-Qaeda. The United States' Bush Doctrine stated that, as policy, it would not distinguish between al-Qaeda and nations that harbor them.

Two military operations in Afghanistan seek to establish control over the country. Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) is a United States combat operation involving some coalition partners and currently operating primarily in the eastern and southern parts of the country along the Pakistan border. Approximately 28,300 US troops are in OEF.[24][25]

Dostum and president Hamid Karzai in 2001

The second operation is the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) established by the UN Security Council at the end of December 2001 to secure Kabul and its surrounding territories, NATO would later assume control of ISAF in 2003. By January 12, 2009, ISAF had around 55,100 troops from 41 different countries, with the NATO members providing the bulk of the force. The United States has approximately 23,300 troops in ISAF.[26]

The initial attack removed the Taliban from power, but Taliban forces have since regained some strength and popularity with the Afghan people.[27] The war has been less successful in achieving the goal of restricting al-Qaeda's movement as expected at first.[28] Since 2006, Afghanistan has seen threats to its stability from increased Taliban-led insurgent and terrorist activity, record-high levels of illegal drug production,[29][30] and a fragile government with limited control outside of Kabul and big cities.[31]

[edit] Military of Afghanistan

Main article: Military of Afghanistan

The military of Afghanistan is composed of the Afghan National Army, the Afghan National Army Air Corps (formerly the Afghan Air Force), and scattered small-sized authorized militia forces. Being a landlocked country, Afghanistan has no navy.

[edit] Afghan National Army

Main article: Afghan National Army
Afghan National Army members receive training on the proper way to clear a room at Morehead Commando Training Camp in Kabul, Afghanistan

The Afghan National Army (ANA) is a service branch of the Military of Afghanistan currently being trained by the coalition forces to ultimately take the lead in land-based military operations in Afghanistan so they can secure the country when the western nations withdraw. Throughout most of the 1960s to1991, the Afghan army was trained and equipped by the Soviet Union. By 1992 the national army fragmented into regional militias under local warlords because of the fall of the Soviet Union which stopped supplying the army and later in 1992 when the Afghan government lost power and the country went into a state of anarchy. When the Taliban took power in 1996, they had no need for the Afghan Military because they had their own armed force. After the removal of the Taliban in late 2001 by the American led NATO operation, the new Afghan National Army was re-established.[32]

The Afghan National Army is being equipped with modern weapons and provided with newly-built state-of-the-art housing facilities. Since 2002, billions of US dollars worth of military equipment, facilities, and other forms of aid has been provided to the Afghan National Army and military in a whole. Most of the weapons comes from the United States, meaning they are replacing their old Soviet weapons with more western and modern ones.[33]

[edit] Afghan National Army Air Corps

Main article: Afghan National Army Air Corps

The Afghan National Army Air Corps (ANAAC) is a service branch of the Military of Afghanistan, which is responsible for air defense and air warfare. It was established in 1924, just as the National Army in the 1990s the National Air Corps was reduced to a very small force while the country was torn by civil war. The Afghan National Air Corps is currently being rebuilt and modernized by the US-led multinational Combined Air Power Transition Force of the US-led international Combined Security Transition Command - Afghanistan (CSTC-A).[34]

[edit] Rebuilding Afghanistan

President George W. Bush and President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan appear together in 2006 at a joint news conference at the Presidential Palace in Kabul.

Sponsored by the United Nations, Afghan factions opposed to the Taliban met in Bonn, Germany in early December and agreed on a political process to restore stability and governance to Afghanistan. In the first step, the Afghan Interim Authority, was formed and was installed in Kabul on December 22, 2001.[35] Chaired by Hamid Karzai, it numbered 30 leaders and included a Supreme Court, an Interim Administration, and a Special Independent Commission.

In March 2002, a series of earthquakes struck Afghanistan, with a loss of thousands of homes and over 2000 lives.[36] Over 4000 more people were injured. The earthquakes occurred at Samangan Province (March 3) and Baghlan Province (March 25). The latter was the worse of the two, and incurred most of the casualties. International authorities assisted the Afghan government in dealing with the situation.[37][38]

A "Loya Jirga" (Grand Council of tribal leaders) was convened in June of 2002 by former King Zahir Shah, who returned from exile after 29 years. The Loya Jirga elected Hamid Karzai as president for the two year transitional period, and replaced the Afghan Interim Authority with the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (TISA). Hamid Karzai was the target of an unsuccessful assassination attempt in September 5, 2002.[39] A constitutional Loya Jirga was held in December 2003, adopting a new constitution (January 2004) with a presidential form of government and a bicameral legislature.[40]

Hamid Karzai was elected in the first nationwide presidential election in October 2004. Over eight million people, including women, were able to vote. Seats in the 250 member parliament and provincial council seats were filed by elections in September 2005.[41]

Current problems that exist for the administration include controlling bands of bandits roaming Afghanistan's rural sector, removing the debris (and in particular, unmapped buried landmines) from decades of civil war from the countryside, and rebuilding the Afghan economy. Political violence also remains a problem. Numerous bombs have exploded in Kabul, targeting the international peacekeepers of the International Security Assistance Force. The Taliban have not disappeared, and the civil war still continues in the countryside, especially in the southern provinces (2006). The southern provinces have also been afflicted by the eradication policies carried out by the international community and Afghan government and suffer from the increased poverty this has brought to rural zones. Some have linked failed eradication policies to the increase in violence in the south and suggest the international community focus efforts more on reconstruction as an effective counter-insurgency policy, gaining hearts and minds. One alternative development group, the Senlis Council proposes that the poppy crop be licensed in controlled projects and poppy-based medicines be made from it, to encourage economic diversity.[42]

[edit] Reconstruction in Afghanistan

After more than three decades of conflict, the reconstruction process of Afghanistan has begun, though it continues to be hampered by continuing conflict. There are more than 14,000 reconstruction projects under way in Afghanistan, such as the Kajaki Dam.[43] Many of these projects are being supervised by the Provincial Reconstruction Teams. The World Bank contribution is the multilateral Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund (ARTF), which was set up in May 2002. It is financed by 24 international donor countries and has spent more than $1.37 billion US dollars as of 2007.[44] Approximately 30 billion US dollars have been provided by the international community for the reconstruction of Afghanistan, most of it from the United States. In 2002, the world community allocated $4 billion US dollars at the Tokyo conference followed by another $4 billion in 2004. In February 2006, $10.5 billion US dollars were committed for Afghanistan at the London Conference[45] and $11 billion from the United States in early 2007. One major development goal is the completion of the ring road - a series of highways linking the major cities of Afghanistan.[46][47]

[edit] References

  1. ^ The History Guy - The Afghan Civil War
  2. ^ "World: Analysis Afghanistan: 20 years of bloodshed". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/83854.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  3. ^ "Afghanistan's turbulent history". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1569826.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  4. ^ Svetlana Savranskaya. "Volume II: Afghanistan: Lessons from the Last War". The National Security Archive. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB57/soviet.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  5. ^ "How Not to End a War". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2007/07/17/GR2007071700070.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  6. ^ "Russia marks Afghanistan retreat". Al Jazeera. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2009/02/20092158556204114.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  7. ^ "1988: USSR pledges to leave Afghanistan". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/14/newsid_4419000/4419833.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  8. ^ "Afghan rebels seize capital, hang former president". CNN News. 1996-07-27. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9609/27/afghan.rebels/index.html. 
  9. ^ "Afghan warlord vows to join fight against Taliban". CNN News. 1996-10-15. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9610/15/afghan/index.html. 
  10. ^ "Taliban bombards targets in northern Afghanistan". CNN News. 1996-10-18. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9610/15/afghan/index.html. 
  11. ^ "Afghan government forces recapture key military positions". CNN News. 1996-10-19. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9610/19/afghanistan/index.html. 
  12. ^ "Afghan government troops close in on capital". CNN News. 1996-10-20. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9610/20/afghanistan/index.html. 
  13. ^ "Heavy fighting with no results in Afghanistan". CNN News. 1996-11-10. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9611/10/afghan/index.html. 
  14. ^ "Afghan Taliban claim advances against warlord". CNN News. 1997-05-07. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9705/20/afghan/. 
  15. ^ "Afghanistan's Taliban, opposition both claim gains". CNN News. 1997-07-31. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9707/31/afghanistan/. 
  16. ^ "U.N. report details Taliban mass killings". CNN News. 1998-11-06. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9811/06/un.taliban.01/index.html. 
  17. ^ "Iranian military exercises draw warning from Afghanistan". CNN News. 1997-08-31. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9808/31/iran.games/. 
  18. ^ "Taliban threatens retaliation if Iran strikes". CNN News. 1997-09-15. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9809/15/iran.afghan.tensions.02/index.html. 
  19. ^ "Afghanistan claims Iranian aircraft invaded its airspace". CNN News. 1997-10-02. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9810/02/iran.afghanistan/index.html. 
  20. ^ "Iran reports clash with Afghan militia". CNN News. 1997-10-08. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9810/08/iran.afghan.01/. 
  21. ^ "Massoud ready to fight on". EurAsiaNet. 2009-03-15. http://www.eurasianet.org/eurasianet/departments/insight/articles/eav1006a00.shtml. 
  22. ^ Wright, Looming Towers (2006), p.355
  23. ^ "Taliban and the Northern Alliance". About.com. 2001-11-09. http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa092801a.htm. 
  24. ^ "U.S. Forces in Afghanistan". fas.org. http://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22633.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  25. ^ "US Forces in Afghanistan". Congressional Research Reports for the People. July 15, 2008. http://opencrs.com/document/RS22633. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  26. ^ "I. International Security Assistance Force (ISAF): Facts and Figures". NATO International. http://www.nato.int/isaf/docu/epub/pdf/isaf_placemat.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  27. ^ "The Taliban Resurgence in Afghanistan". Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  28. ^ "Afghanistan: and the troubled future of unconventional warfare By Hy S. Rothstein". http://books.google.com/books?id=w7fmg1cCjskC&vid=ISBN8170493064&dq=Afghanistan+and+the+troubled+future+of+unconventional+warfare&q=Al+Qaeda&pgis=1#search. 
  29. ^ "Opium Harvest at Record Level in Afghanistan". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/03/world/asia/03afghan.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  30. ^ "Afghanistan opium at record high". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6965115.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  31. ^ "Afghanistan could return to being a ‘failed State,’ warns Security Council mission chief". United Nations. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20702&Cr=afghan&Cr1=. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  32. ^ "Blood Strained Hands". Human Right Watch. http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  33. ^ Tini Tran (2006-07-04). "Afghanistan to get $2 billion in U.S. gear". AfghanNews.net. http://www.afghannews.net/index.php?action=show&type=news&id=844.com. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  34. ^ Tini Tran (January 24, 2008). "Brief with Commander, CAPTF". Department of Defense. http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=4126. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  35. ^ "UN factsheet on Bonn Agreement". United Nations. http://www.unama-afg.org/news/_parelection/_factsheets/_english/JEMBS%20PO%20BG%20General%20BG%20final%202005-4-1%20eng.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  36. ^ "Afghan quake 'kills 2,000'". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1893867.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  37. ^ "Have there been serious ones recently?". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/find_out/guides/tech/earthquakes/newsid_1894000/1894980.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  38. ^ "Afghanistan quake: How to help". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1898850.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  39. ^ Margaret Warner. "Day of Afghan Violence". PBS News. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/july-dec02/afghan_9-5.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  40. ^ "Afghan MPs hold landmark session". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4540756.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  41. ^ "Zalmay Khalilzad: US power broker". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4736394.stm. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  42. ^ ""Poppies for Medicine" The Senlis Council". International Council on Security and Development. http://icosgroup.net/modules/events/London_event_on_afghanistan/documents/poppy_medicine_technical_dossier. Retrieved on 2009-03-15. 
  43. ^ Radio Free Europe - Afghanistan: NATO Pleased With Offensive, But Goals Still Unmet
  44. ^ "Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund". World Bank. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/AFGHANISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20152008~pagePK:141137~piPK:217854~theSitePK:305985,00.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  45. ^ "Government to have greater control over aid pledged in London". IRIN Asia. http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=51510&SelectRegion=Asia&SelectCountry=AFGHANISTAN. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  46. ^ "Road reconstruction map". gdb.rferl. http://gdb.rferl.org/3E7AE005-B925-445D-8059-613AD8E0549B.jpg. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 
  47. ^ "Afghanistan: Ring Road's Completion Would Benefit Entire Region". Radio Free Europe. http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/10/7f9d2791-dc84-4928-90ce-4a1e6e8a02c6.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. 

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_war_in_Afghanistan"
Personal tools