Close back rounded vowel
| Close back rounded vowel | |
|---|---|
| u | |
| IPA Number | 308 |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | u |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0075 |
| X-SAMPA | u |
The close back rounded vowel, or high back rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨u⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is u.
In most languages, this rounded vowel is pronounced with protruded lips ('endolabial'). However, in a few cases the lips are compressed ('exolabial').
The close back rounded vowel is almost identical featurally to the labio-velar approximant [w]. [u] alternates with [w] in certain languages, such as French, and in the diphthongs of some languages, [u̯] with the non-syllabic diacritic and [w] are used in different transcription systems to represent the same sound.
Close back protruded vowel
The close back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the close back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨u⟩, which is the convention used in this article. As there is no dedicated IPA diacritic for protrusion, the symbol for the close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨ ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨u̫⟩. Another possible transcription is ⟨uʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯʷ⟩ (a close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but that could be misread as a diphthong.
Features
| IPA: Vowels | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Legend: unrounded • rounded |
- Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed.
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Standard[2] | [boek] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [bu̜k] | 'book' | Only weakly rounded.[3] See Afrikaans phonology |
| Arabic | Standard[4] | جنوب | [d͡ʒaˈnuːb] | 'south' | See Arabic phonology |
| Armenian | Eastern[5] | դուռ | [dur] | 'door' | |
| Bavarian | Amstetten dialect[6] | [example needed] | |||
| Bulgarian[7] | луд | [ɫut̪] | 'crazy' | See Bulgarian phonology | |
| Catalan[8] | [suc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [s̺uk] | 'juice' | See Catalan phonology | |
| Chinese | Mandarin[9][10] | 土 / [tǔ] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [t̪ʰu˩˧] | 'earth' | See Standard Chinese phonology |
| Cantonese[11] | [[[Chinese characters|夫]] / fu1] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | ⓘ | 'man' | See Cantonese phonology | |
| Shanghainese[12] | 瓜 | [ku¹] | 'melon' | Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back compressed vowel.[12] | |
| Danish | Standard[13][14] | [[[Danish and Norwegian alphabet|du]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [d̥u] | 'you' | See Danish phonology |
| Dutch | Standard[15][16] | [voet] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | ⓘ | 'foot' | Somewhat fronted in Belgian Standard Dutch.[16] |
| English | Australian[17] | [book] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [buk] | 'book' | Also described as near-close near-back [ʊ];[18] corresponds to [ʊ] in other accents. See Australian English phonology |
| Cape Flats[19] | May be advanced to [ʉ], or lowered and unrounded to [ɤ].[19] See South African English phonology | ||||
| Cultivated South African[20] | [boot] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [bu̟ːt] | 'boot' | Typically more front than cardinal [u]. Instead of being back, it may be central [ʉː] in Geordie and RP, and front [yː] in Multicultural London. See English phonology and South African English phonology | |
| General American[21] | |||||
| Geordie[22] | |||||
| Multicultural London[23] | |||||
| Received Pronunciation[24] | |||||
| Welsh[25][26][27] | |||||
| Pakistani[28] | [buːʈ] | ||||
| Greater New York City | [buːt][29] | ||||
| New Zealand[30][31] | [treacle] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈtɹ̝̊e̝ku] | 'treacle' | Possible realization of the unstressed vowel /ɯ/, which is variable in rounding and ranges from central to (more often) back and close to close-mid.[30][31] Corresponds to /əl/ in other accents. See New Zealand English phonology | |
| Estonian[32] | [[[Estonian orthography|sule]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈsule̞] | 'feather' (gen. sg.) | See Estonian phonology | |
| Finnish[33][34] | [kukka] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈkukːɑ] | 'flower' | See Finnish phonology | |
| Faroese[35] | [[[Faroese orthography|gulur]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈkuːlʊɹ] | 'yellow' | See Faroese phonology | |
| French[36][37] | [[[French orthography|où]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | ⓘ | 'where' | See French phonology | |
| Georgian[38] | გუდა | [ɡudɑ] | 'leather bag' | ||
| German | Standard[39][40] | [Fuß] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | ⓘ | 'foot' | See Standard German phonology |
| Many speakers[41] | [Stunde] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈʃtundə] | 'hour' | The usual realization of /ʊ/ in Switzerland, Austria and partially also in Western and Southwestern Germany (Palatinate, Swabia).[41] See Standard German phonology | |
| Greek | Modern Standard[42][43] | που / pu | [pu] | 'where' | See Modern Greek phonology |
| Hungarian[44] | [[[Hungarian alphabet|út]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [uːt̪] | 'way' | See Hungarian phonology | |
| Icelandic[45][46] | [þú] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [θ̠u] | 'you' | See Icelandic phonology | |
| Italian[47] | [tutta] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈt̪ut̪t̪ä] | 'all' (sing. fem.) | See Italian phonology | |
| Kaingang[48] | [ˈndukːi] | 'in the belly' | |||
| Limburgish[49][50] | [sjoen] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʃu̟n] | 'beautiful' | Back[50] or near-back,[49] depending on the dialect. The example word is from the Maastrichtian dialect. | |
| Lower Sorbian[51] | [zub] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [z̪up] | 'tooth' | ||
| Luxembourgish[52] | [Luucht] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [luːχt] | 'air' | See Luxembourgish phonology | |
| Mongolian[53] | үүр | [uːɾɘ̆] | 'nest' | ||
| Norwegian | Urban East[54][55] | [mot] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [muːt] | 'courage' | The type of rounding is more often said to be compressed[56][57] than protruded.[58] It can be diphthongized to [uə̯].[59] See Norwegian phonology |
| Polish[60] | [buk] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | ⓘ | 'beech tree' | Also represented by ⟨ó⟩. See Polish phonology | |
| Portuguese[61] | [[[Portuguese orthography|tu]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈtu] | 'you' | See Portuguese phonology | |
| Romanian[62] | [[[Romanian alphabet|unu]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈun̪u] | 'one' | See Romanian phonology | |
| Russian[63] | узкий | ⓘ | 'narrow' | See Russian phonology | |
| Serbo-Croatian[64] | [duga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) / дуга | [d̪ǔːɡä] | 'rainbow' | See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
| Shiwiar[65] | [example needed] | ||||
| Slovak[66] | [ruka] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈrukä] | 'arm' | Backness varies between back and near-back; most commonly, it is realized as near-close [ʊ] instead.[67] See Slovak phonology | |
| Spanish[68] | [curable] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [kuˈɾäβ̞le̞] | 'curable' | See Spanish phonology | |
| Sotho[69] | [[[Sotho orthography|tumo]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [tʼumɔ] | 'fame' | Contrasts close, near-close and close-mid back rounded vowels.[69] See Sotho phonology | |
| Thai[70] | สุด | [sut˨˩] | 'rearmost' | ||
| Turkish[71][72] | [[[Turkish alphabet|uzak]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [uˈz̪äk] | 'far' | See Turkish phonology | |
| Udmurt[73] | урэтэ | [urete] | 'to divide' | ||
| Upper Sorbian[51][74] | [žuk] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʒuk] | 'beetle' | See Upper Sorbian phonology | |
| Yoruba[75] | [example needed] | ||||
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[76] | gdu | [ɡdu] | 'all' | |
Close back compressed vowel
| Close back compressed vowel | |
|---|---|
| u͍ | |
| ɯᵝ | |
| Audio sample | |
Some languages, such as Japanese and Swedish, have a close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial.[77] Only Shanghainese is known to contrast it with the more typical protruded (endolabial) close back vowel, but the height of both vowels varies from close to close-mid.[12]
There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯᵝ⟩ ([ɯ] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨u͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, but 'spread' technically means unrounded.
Features
- Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed.
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese | Shanghainese[12] | 都 | [tɯᵝ¹] | 'capital' | Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back protruded vowel.[12] |
| Japanese[78] | 空気 / kūki | ⓘ | 'air' | Near-back; may be realized as central [ÿ] by younger speakers.[78] See Japanese phonology | |
| Lizu[79] | [Fmɯ̟ᵝ] | 'feather' | Near-back.[79] | ||
| Norwegian | Urban East[54][55] | [mot] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [mɯᵝːt] | 'courage' | The type of rounding is more often said to be compressed[56][57] than protruded.[58] It can be diphthongized to [ɯᵝə̯].[59] See Norwegian phonology |
| Swedish | Central Standard[80][81] | [[[Swedish alphabet|oro]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [²ɯᵝːrɯᵝː] | 'unease' | Often realized as a sequence [ɯᵝβ̞] or [ɯᵝβ][80] (hear the word: ⓘ). See Swedish phonology |
See also
References
- ^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
- ^ Donaldson (1993), pp. 2, 5.
- ^ Donaldson (1993), p. 5.
- ^ Thelwall & Sa'Adeddin (1990), p. 38.
- ^ Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 13.
- ^ Traunmüller (1982), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:290)
- ^ Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56.
- ^ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
- ^ Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 110–111.
- ^ Duanmu (2007), pp. 35–36.
- ^ Zee (1999), pp. 59–60.
- ^ a b c d e Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329.
- ^ Grønnum (1998), p. 100.
- ^ Basbøll (2005), p. 46.
- ^ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 47.
- ^ a b Verhoeven (2005), p. 245.
- ^ Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
- ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009a).
- ^ a b Finn (2004), p. 970.
- ^ Lass (2002), p. 116.
- ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009b).
- ^ Watt & Allen (2003), p. 268.
- ^ Gimson (2014), p. 91.
- ^ Roach (2004), p. 242.
- ^ Collins & Mees (1990), p. 95.
- ^ Connolly (1990), p. 125.
- ^ Tench (1990), p. 135.
- ^ Mahboob & Ahmar (2004), p. 1007.
- ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. chpt. 17.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b "NZE Phonology" (PDF). Victoria University of Wellington. p. 3.
- ^ a b Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 585.
- ^ Asu & Teras (2009), p. 368.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 60, 66.
- ^ Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 21.
- ^ Árnason (2011), pp. 68, 74.
- ^ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2013), p. 225.
- ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), pp. 261–262.
- ^ Kohler (1999), p. 87.
- ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
- ^ a b Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
- ^ Arvaniti (2007), p. 28.
- ^ Trudgill (2009), p. 81.
- ^ Szende (1994), p. 92.
- ^ Árnason (2011), p. 60.
- ^ Einarsson (1945:10), cited in Gussmann (2011:73)
- ^ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 119.
- ^ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676–677, 682.
- ^ a b Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 159.
- ^ a b Peters (2006), p. 119.
- ^ a b Stone (2002), p. 600.
- ^ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 62, 66–67.
- ^ a b Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 17.
- ^ a b Popperwell (2010), pp. 16, 27.
- ^ a b Haugen (1974), p. 40.
- ^ a b Kristoffersen (2000), p. 16.
- ^ a b Popperwell (2010), p. 27.
- ^ a b Vanvik (1979), p. 17.
- ^ Jassem (2003), p. 105.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- ^ Sarlin (2014), p. 18.
- ^ Jones & Ward (1969), p. 67.
- ^ Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
- ^ Fast Mowitz (1975), p. 2.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), p. 95.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), pp. 93, 95.
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 256.
- ^ a b Doke & Mofokeng (1974), p. ?.
- ^ Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993), p. 24.
- ^ Zimmer & Organ (1999), p. 155.
- ^ Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 11.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 64, 68.
- ^ Šewc-Schuster (1984), p. 20.
- ^ Bamgboṣe (1969), p. 166.
- ^ Merrill (2008), p. 109.
- ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 295.
- ^ a b Okada (1999), p. 118.
- ^ a b Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 78.
- ^ a b Engstrand (1999), p. 140.
- ^ Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9.
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