Double beta decay

Double beta decay is a radioactive decay process where a nucleus releases two beta rays as a single process.

History

The idea of double beta decay was first proposed by Maria Goeppert-Mayer in 1935.[1] In 1937 Ettore Majorana theoretically demonstrated that all results of beta decay theory remain unchanged if the neutrino is its own anti-particle, i.e. a Majorana particle. In 1939 Wendell H. Furry proposed if neutrinos are a Majorana particle, double beta decay can proceed without emission of any neutrino, via the process now called the neutrinoless beta decay.[2]

In 1930–40s parity violation in weak interactions was not known and consequently calculations showed that neutrinoless double beta decay should be much more likely to occur than ordinary double beta decay (if neutrinos are Majorana particles). The predicted half-lives were on the order of 1015–16 years. Efforts to observe the process in laboratory date back to at least 1948 when Edward L. Fireman made the first attempt to measure the half-life of the 124Sn isotope. Radiometric experiments through about 1960 produced negative results or false positives, not confirmed by later experiments. In 1950 for the first time the half-life of the 130Te was measured by geochemical methods, to be 1.4×1021 years, reasonably close to the modern value.[2]

In 1956 after the V-A nature of weak interactions was established it became clear the half-life of neutrinoless double beta decay would significantly exceed that of ordinary double beta decay. Despite significant progress in experimental techniques in 1960–70s, double beta decay was not observed in a laboratory until the 1980s. Experiments had only been able to establish the lower bound for the half-life—about 1021 years. On the other hand, geochemical experiments detected double beta decay of 82Se and 128Te.[2]

Double beta decay was first observed in a laboratory in 1987 by the group of Michael Moe at UC Irvine on 82Se. Since then many experiments have observed ordinary double beta decay in other isotopes. None of those experiments has produced positive results for the neutrinoless process, raising the half-life lower bound to 1025 years. Geochemical experiments continued through the 1990s, producing positive results for a few more isotopes.[2] Double beta decay is the rarest known kind of radioactive decay; as of 2012 it has been observed for only 12 isotopes (including double electron capture in 130Ba observed in 2001), and all have a mean lifetime over 1018 yr (table below).[2]

Ordinary double beta decay

In double beta decay, two neutrons in the nucleus are converted to protons, and two electrons and two electron antineutrinos are emitted. The process can be thought as a sum of two beta minus decays. In order for (double) beta decay to be possible, the final nucleus must have a larger binding energy than the original nucleus. For some nuclei, such as germanium-76, the nucleus one atomic number higher has a smaller binding energy, preventing single beta decay. However, the nucleus with atomic number two higher, selenium-76, has a larger binding energy, so double beta decay is allowed.

For some nuclei, the process occurs as conversion of two protons to neutrons, emitting two electron neutrinos and absorbing two orbital electrons (double electron capture). If the mass difference between the parent and daughter atoms is more than 1.022 MeV/c2 (two electron masses), another decay is accessible, capture of one orbital electron and emission of one positron. When the mass difference is more than 2.044 MeV/c2 (four electron masses), emission of two positrons is possible. These theoretical decay branches have not been observed.

Known double beta decay isotopes

There are 35 naturally occurring isotopes capable of double beta decay. The decay can be observed in practice if the single beta decay is forbidden by energy conservation. This happens for even-Z, even-N isotopes, which are more stable due to spin-coupling, seen by the pairing term in the semi-empirical mass formula.

Many isotopes are theoretically expected to double beta decay. In most cases, the double beta decay is so rare its nearly impossible to observe against the background. However, the double beta decay of 238U (also an alpha emitter) has been measured radiochemically.. Two of the nuclides (48Ca and 96Zr) from the table below can also single beta decay but this is extremely suppressed and never been observed.

Eleven isotopes have been experimentally observed undergoing two-neutrino double beta decay.[3] The table below contains nuclides with the latest experimentally measured half-lives, as of December 2012.[3]

Nuclide Half-life, 1021 years Transition Method Experiment
48Ca 0.044+0.005
−0.004
± 0.004
direct NEMO-3
76Ge 1.84 +0.09
−0.08
+0.11
−0.06
direct GERDA (2013)[4]
82Se 0.096 ± 0.003 ± 0.010 direct NEMO-3
96Zr 0.0235 ± 0.0014 ± 0.0016 direct NEMO-3
100Mo 0.00711 ± 0.00002 ± 0.00054 direct NEMO-3
0.69+0.10
−0.08
± 0.07
0+→ 0+1 direct Ge coincidence
116Cd 0.028 ± 0.001 ± 0.003 direct NEMO-3
128Te 7200 ± 400 geochemical
130Te 0.7 ± 0.09 ± 0.11 direct NEMO-3
136Xe 2.165 ± 0.016 ± 0.059 direct EXO-200
150Nd 0.00911+0.00025
−0.00022
± 0.00063
direct NEMO-3
238U 2.0 ± 0.6 geochemical

Note:In the table above where two errors are specified the first one is statistical error and the second is systematic.[3]

Neutrinoless double beta decay

Feynman diagram of neutrinoless double beta decay, with two neutrons decaying to two protons. The only emitted products in this process are two electrons, which can occur if the neutrino and antineutrino are the same particle (i.e. Majorana neutrinos) so the same neutrino can be emitted and absorbed within the nucleus. In conventional double beta decay, two antineutrinos — one arising from each W vertex — are emitted from the nucleus, in addition to the two electrons. The detection of neutrinoless double beta decay is thus a sensitive test of whether neutrinos are Majorana particles.

The processes described in the previous section are also known as two-neutrino double beta decay, as two neutrinos (or antineutrinos) are emitted. If the neutrino is a Majorana particle (meaning that the antineutrino and the neutrino are actually the same particle), and at least one type of neutrino has non-zero mass (which has been established by the neutrino oscillation experiments), then it is possible for neutrinoless double beta decay to occur. In the simplest theoretical treatment, light neutrino exchange, the two neutrinos annihilate each other, or equivalently, a nucleon absorbs the neutrino emitted by another nucleon.

The neutrinos in the above diagram are virtual particles. With only two electrons in the final state, the electrons total kinetic energy would be approximately the binding energy difference of the initial and final nuclei (with the nucleus recoil accounting for the rest). To a very good approximation, the electrons are emitted back-to-back.

The decay rate for this process is approximated by

$\Gamma = ~~~~{G |M|^2 |m_{\beta \beta}|^2},$

where $G$ is the two-body phase-space factor, $M$ is the nuclear matrix element, and mββ is the effective Majorana neutrino mass given by

$m_{\beta \beta} = \sum_{i=1}^3 m_i U^2_{ei}.$

In this expression, mi is the neutrino masses (of the ith mass eigenstate), and the Uei are elements of the lepton mixing Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata (PMNS) matrix. Therefore, observing neutrinoless double beta decay, in addition to confirming the Majorana neutrino nature, would give information on the absolute neutrino mass scale, potentially the neutrino mass hierarchy, and Majorana phases in the PMNS matrix.[5][6]

The deep significance of the process stems from the "black-box theorem" which that observing neutrinoless double beta decay implies at least one neutrino is a Majorana particle, irrespective of whether the process is engendered by neutrino exchange.[7]

Experiments

Numerous experiments have searched for neutrinoless double beta decay. Recent and proposed experiments include:

• Completed experiments:
• Experiments currently taking data:
• COBRA, 116Cd in room temperature CdZnTe crystals
• CUORE(CUORICINO), 130Te in TeO2 crystals.
• DCBA, testing a magnetic tracking detector at KEK
• EXO, a 136Xe search
• GERDA, a 76Ge detector
• KamLAND-Zen, a 136Xe search
• Majorana, using high purity 76Ge p-type point-contact detectors
• XMASS using liquid Xe
• Proposed/future experiments:
• CANDLES, 48Ca in CaF2, at Kamioka Observatory
• MOON, developing 100Mo detectors
• AMoRE, 100Mo enriched CaMoO4 crystals at YangYang underground laboratory[8]
• LUMINEU, exploring 100Mo enriched ZnMoO4 crystals at LSM, France.
• NEXT, a Xenon TPC. NEXT-DEMO ran and NEXT-100 will run in 2016.
• SNO+, a liquid scintillator, will study 130Te
• SuperNEMO, a NEMO upgrade, will study 82Se
• TIN.TIN, a 124Sn detector at INO

Status

Early experiments did claim neutrinoless decay, but modern searches have set limits disfavoring those results. Recent published lower bounds for Ge and Xe indicate no sign of neutrinoless decay.

Heidelberg-Moscow Controversy

Heidelberg-Moscow collaboration initially released limits on neutrinoless beta decay in Germanium-76.[1] Then some members claimed detection in 2001.[9] This claim was criticized by outside physicists[1][10][11] as well as other members of the collaboration.[12] In 2006 a refined estimate by the same authors stated the half-life was 2.3×1025 years.[13] More sensitive experiments are expected to resolve the controversy.[1][14]

Current Results

As of 2014, GERDA has reached much lower background, obtaining a half-life limit of 2.1×1025 years with 21.6 kg*yr exposure.[15] IGEX and HDM data increase the limit to 3×1025 yr and rule out detection at high confidence. Searches with 136Xe, Kamland-Zen and EXO-200, yielded a limit of 2.6×1025 yr. Using the latest nuclear matrix elements, the 136Xe results also disfavor the HM claim.

References

1. ^ a b c d Giuliani, A.; Poves, A. (2012). "Neutrinoless Double-Beta Decay". Advances in High Energy Physics 2012: 1. doi:10.1155/2012/857016. edit
2. Barabash, A. S. (2011). "Experiment double beta decay: Historical review of 75 years of research". Physics of Atomic Nuclei 74 (4): 603–613. arXiv:1104.2714. Bibcode:2011PAN....74..603B. doi:10.1134/S1063778811030070. edit
3. ^ a b c Beringer, J.; Arguin, J.; Barnett, R.; Copic, K.; Dahl, O.; Groom, D.; Lin, C.; Lys, J.; Murayama, H.; Wohl, C. G.; Yao, W. -M.; Zyla, P. A.; Amsler, C.; Antonelli, M.; Asner, D. M.; Baer, H.; Band, H. R.; Basaglia, T.; Bauer, C. W.; Beatty, J. J.; Belousov, V. I.; Bergren, E.; Bernardi, G.; Bertl, W.; Bethke, S.; Bichsel, H.; Biebel, O.; Blucher, E.; Blusk, S.; Brooijmans, G. (2012). "Review of Particle Physics". Physical Review D 86. Bibcode:2012PhRvD..86a0001B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.86.010001. edit
4. ^ Agostini, M.; Allardt, M.; Andreotti, E.; Bakalyarov, A. M.; Balata, M.; Barabanov, I.; Heider, M. B.; Barros, N.; Baudis, L.; Bauer, C.; Becerici-Schmidt, N.; Bellotti, E.; Belogurov, S.; Belyaev, S. T.; Benato, G.; Bettini, A.; Bezrukov, L.; Bode, T.; Brudanin, V.; Brugnera, R.; Budjáš, D.; Caldwell, A.; Cattadori, C.; Chernogorov, A.; Cossavella, F.; Demidova, E. V.; Denisov, A.; Domula, A.; Egorov, V. et al. (2013). "Measurement of the half-life of the two-neutrino double beta decay of76Ge with the GERDA experiment". Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 40 (3): 035110. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/40/3/035110. edit
5. ^ K. Grotz and H.V. Klapdor, „The Weak Interaction in Nuclear, Particle and Astrophysics“, Adam Hilger, Bristol, 1990, 461 ps.
6. ^ H.V. Klapdor, A. Staudt „Non-accelerator Particle Physics“, 2.edition, Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol, Philadelphia, 1998, 535 ps.
7. ^ Schechter, J.; J. W. F. Valle (1982-06-01). "Neutrinoless Double beta Decay in SU(2) ⊗ U(1) theories". Physical Review D 25 : 2951. Bibcode:1982PhRvD..25.2951S.doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.25.2951
8. ^ N. D. Khanbekov (September 2013). "AMoRE: Collaboration for searches for the neutrinoless double-beta decay of the isotope of 100Mo with the aid of 40Ca100MoO4 as a cryogenic scintillation detector". Physics of Atomic Nuclei, Volume 76, Issue 9. doi:10.1134/S1063778813090093.
9. ^ Klapdor-Kleingrothaus, H. V.; Dietz, A.; Harney, H. L.; Krivosheina, I. V. (2001). "Evidence for Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay". Modern Physics Letters A 16 (37): 2409. doi:10.1142/S0217732301005825. edit
10. ^ Aalseth, C. E.; Avignone, F. T.; Barabash, A.; Boehm, F.; Brodzinski, R. L.; Collar, J. I.; Doe, P. J.; Ejiri, H.; Elliott, S. R.; Fiorini, E.; Gaitskell, R. J.; Gratta, G.; Hazama, R.; Kazkaz, K.; King, G. S.; Kouzes, R. T.; Miley, H. S.; Moe, M. K.; Morales, A.; Morales, J.; Piepke, A.; Robertson, R. G. H.; Tornow, W.; Vogel, P.; Warner, R. A.; Wilkerson, J. F. (2002). "Comment on "evidence for Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay"". Modern Physics Letters A 17 (22): 1475. doi:10.1142/S0217732302007715. edit
11. ^ Zdesenko, Y. G.; Danevich, F. A.; Tretyak, V. I. (2002). "Has neutrinoless double β decay of 76Ge been really observed?". Physics Letters B 546 (3–4): 206. doi:10.1016/S0370-2693(02)02705-3. edit
12. ^ A. M. Bakalyarov, A. Y. Balysh, S. T. Belyaev, V. I. Lebedev, and S. V. Zhukov, (2003). "Results of the experiment on investigation of Germanium-76 double beta decay". Proceedings of the NANP, Dubna, Russia.
13. ^ Klapdor-Kleingrothaus, H. V.; Krivosheina, I. V. (2006). "THE EVIDENCE FOR THE OBSERVATION OF 0νββ DECAY: THE IDENTIFICATION OF 0νββ EVENTS FROM THE FULL SPECTRA". Modern Physics Letters A 21 (20): 1547. doi:10.1142/S0217732306020937. edit
14. ^ Schwingenheuer, B. (2013). "Status and prospects of searches for neutrinoless double beta decay". Annalen der Physik 525 (4): 269. doi:10.1002/andp.201200222. edit
15. ^ Agostini, M.; Allardt, M.; Andreotti, E.; Bakalyarov, A. M.; Balata, M.; Barabanov, I.; Barnabé Heider, M.; Barros, N.; Baudis, L.; Bauer, C.; Becerici-Schmidt, N.; Bellotti, E.; Belogurov, S.; Belyaev, S. T.; Benato, G.; Bettini, A.; Bezrukov, L.; Bode, T.; Brudanin, V.; Brugnera, R.; Budjáš, D.; Caldwell, A.; Cattadori, C.; Chernogorov, A.; Cossavella, F.; Demidova, E. V.; Domula, A.; Egorov, V.; Falkenstein, R. et al. (2013). "Results on Neutrinoless Double-β Decay of ^{76}Ge from Phase I of the GERDA Experiment". Physical Review Letters 111 (12). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.122503. edit