Enka

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For other meanings, see enka (disambiguation).
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Enka
Stylistic origins Ryūkōka
Rōkyoku
Min'yō
Tango music
Cultural origins 1950s Japan. Name is derived from a music of the late 19th century.
Typical instruments Vocal • Guitar • Bass guitar • Drum kit • Piano • Saxophone • Trumpet • Trombone • Shamisen • Shakuhachi
Mainstream popularity Popular in Japan during 1960s and 1970s

Enka (演歌?) is a Japanese popular music genre. Although enka is felt like traditional music, modern enka is the young music genre, which was generated with Japanese nonmaterial nationalism such as Nihonjinron and adopted more traditional style than Japanese prewar popular ryūkōka music.[1]

Modern enka is a balladly popular music developed in the post-war era. Some of the first modern enka singers were Hachiro Kasuga, Michiya Mihashi and Hideo Murata.[2] One theory holds that modern enka means "Enjiru Uta" (演じる歌?) or "Performance Song".[3]

The music called enka was originally speeches set to music which were sung and spread by political activists during the Meiji period (1868–1912) as a means to avoid crackdowns by the government on speeches of political dissent. The movements in this age is called Freedom and People's Rights Movement.[3] The former enka means "Enzetsu no Uta" (演説の歌?) or "Speech Song".[3]

The year that the term "enka" revived is said to be 1969 when Keiko Fuji made her debut.[3]

Contents

[edit] Musical style

One of earliest Japanese songs which used modern enka's mainstream scale called "Yonanuki Tan-Onkai" (ヨナ抜き短音階?) or "Minor Scale without Four and Seven (re and sol)" was said to be Rentarō Taki's song "Kōjō no tsuki", which was called "shōka" (唱歌?) or "school song" in the Meiji Period.[4] There was not the seventh scale degree in the B minor song "Kōjō no tsuki".[5] The scale was a modified version of "Yonanuki Chō-Onkai" (ヨナ抜き長音階?) or "Major Scale without Four and Seven (fa and ti)", which came from one of Japanese previous scales, "Ryo Scale" (呂音階 Ryo Onkai?).[6]

The music, based on the pentatonic scale, has partway resemblance to blues.[7] American enka singer Jero also said "I explained that enka is a form of Japanese blues."[8] Enka lyrics are usually about the themes of love and loss, loneliness, enduring hardships, and persevering in the face of difficulties, even suicide or death. The music is different from kayōkyoku, which has a lack of expression of feeling.[3]

Archetypal enka singers use many kobushi for singing and kobushi resembles vibrato.[7] However, kobushi is different from vibrato. If they use kobushi, they move the pitch of their voice up and down within a scale degree.[9] In Showa 10s (1935–1944), the music of composer Masao Koga began to resemble shomyo possibly because his record label asked him for production of mersh music.[10] Although Koga became a composer whose work is considered seminal for the creation of this genre, present enka is different from primary music of Koga to be exact because postwar singers sang his songs by their own kobushi.[11] Modern enka singer Takeshi Kitayama said "I was even confused because his [Koga's] musical note was different from that of an old singer."[11][fn 1]

Enka suggests a traditional, idealized, or romanticized aspect of Japanese culture and attitudes. Enka singers, who are predominantly women, usually perform in a kimono or in evening dress. Male enka performers tend to wear formal dress, or in some performances, traditional Japanese attire. Nods to traditional Japanese music are common in enka. The melodies of enka are fundamentally Western harmonies, but its musical instruments include shakuhachi and shamisen for having a sense of Japanese music.[12]

However, the genre called enka is also said to be an expediential classification for record labels as well as J-pop. For example, Harumi Miyako, who has been usually considered as an enka singer, said "I don't think that I sing enka" and "In fact, there was no term enka when I debuted."[13][fn 2]

[edit] History

[edit] 19th century–1920s: Sōshi enka and violin enka

Azenbo Soeda, enka-shi in the Meiji Period

The political songs called enka in the Meiji period (1868–1912) is also called "Sōshi Enka" (壮士演歌?) in distinction from modern enka. The street singers were called "enka-shi" (演歌師?). The first enka song is said to be "Dynamite bushi" (ダイナマイト節?).[14] The songs in this age includes Otojiro Kawakami's song "Oppekepe bushi".[15] In the Taishō period (1912–1926), enka-shi began to use the violin and their songs were called "Violin Enka". One of enka-shi around that time was Toshio Sakurai (桜井敏雄?), who had pupil Haruo Oka.[16]

In present Japan, Road Traffic Law regulates street performers. However, Japanese performers such as Utaji Fukuoka (福岡詩二?) have still sung enka of the Taishō period.[17] When the Great Hanshin earthquake broke out in 1995, Soul Flower Union played sōshi enka to help encourage disaster victims.[18]

[edit] 1920s–1940s: The era of ryūkōka

Haruo Oka and Hibari Misora in the poster of 1950 movie "Akogare no Hawaii kōro"
Main article: Ryūkōka

In the early Shōwa period around the late 1920s, record companies produced ryūkōka in place of street performers called "enka-shi".[19] On the other hand, enka-shi began to use guitar and they were dubbed "Nagashi" (流し?).[3] Haruo Oka debuted with the 1939 song "Kokkyō no Haru" (国境の春 lit. "Spring at the Border"?).[20] However, the term "enka" became a uncommon word in the postwar years.[3]

[edit] Late 1940s–1954: Arrival of new singers

See also: Japanese jazz

In the early postwar Japan, jazz became popular. Japanese female singer Hibari Misora's debut song "Kappa boogie-woogie" was released in 1949. She was known for singing jazz songs in 1950s and 1960s.[21] In 1948, Hachiro Kasuga got through the first contest of King Records. He entered the record label in 1949. In the King Records, Haruo Oka was Kasuga's senior. Kabuki-style song "Otomi-san" (お富さん lit. "Miss Otomi"?) was originally made for Oka, but was sung by not Oka but Kasuga. In 1954, Kasuga's song "Otomi-san" hit Japanese popular music very much.[22] Kasuga took part in the Kohaku Uta Gassen for the first time with song "Otomi-san" in 1954.[23] Composer of the song, Masanobu Tokuchi, who born in Okinawa Island and grew up in Amami, became an important figure introducing the Ryukyu Islands' music into Japanese mainstream popular music.[24]

[edit] 1955–1960: Early history of modern enka

Statue of singer Minami Haruo

Although "Otomi-san" became popular, Hachiro Kasuga was not completely satisfied with the song "Otomi-san" and recorded the song "Wakare no Ippon-sugi" (別れの一本杉 lit. "Farewell One Cedar"?) composed by Toru Funamura.[2] The song was released in 1955 and was later regarded as a true enka song.[25] However, the song was influenced by tango music's rhythm because Funamura felt that tango appeared similar to enka in its local color.[25] "Wakare no Ippon-sugi" was later covered by various singers such as Michiya Mihashi, Hideo Murata, Keiko Fuji, Hibari Misora, Saburō Kitajima, Takashi Hosokawa and Hiroshi Itsuki.[26] Kasuga was later called the first enka singer.[2] However, Funamura's friend Kimio Takano, the lyricist of the song, died in 1956 at the age of 26.[25] Michiya Mihashi, who originally sang Japanese folk music called min'yō, debuted as a recording singer in 1954.[27] Mihashi also made hit song "Onna Sendō Uta" in 1955.[27]

Around the postwar period, rōkyoku (naniwa-bushi), which was famous during the war, became unpopular mainly because their speaking was considered too long. Enka, which became popular around that time, was said to be a short version of rōkyoku because several enka singers such as Hideo Murata and Haruo Minami were originally rōkyoku singers and enka has many themes in common with rōkyoku.[28] One of notable rōkyoku singers who had an influence on enka was Kumoemon Tochuken, whose pupil's pupil was Murata.[28] Haruo Minami debuted in 1957 and Hideo Murata debuted in 1958. Murata's cover song "Jinsei Gekijō" (人生劇場 lit. "Drama of Life"?) was composed by Masao Koga.[11]

[edit] 1960s: Commercial success

In the early 1960s, Japanese rockabilly affected by Elvis Presley began to gain popularity. Kyu Sakamoto, who came from Japanese rockabilly, joined Japanese popular music.[29] However, many Japanese music critics complained about rockabilly music and Hideo Murata's 1961 "pure Japanese style"-like song "Ōsho", composed by Toru Funamura, became a million-selling single in Japan.[30] When Kyu Sakamoto took part in the Kōhaku Uta Gassen for the first time with song "Ue o Muite Arukō" (aka "Sukiyaki") in 1961, Hideo Murata also made his debut with song "Ōsho" at the same show.[31]

Popular enka singers, who debuted in 1960s, included Yukio Hashi, Saburō Kitajima, Harumi Miyako, Mina Aoe, Shinichi Mori and Keiko Fuji. Masaru Matsuyama also made his debut in 1965, but was not able to achieve commercially success, and he changed his stage name to Hiroshi Itsuki in 1971.

The most well-known and beloved performer of enka is Hibari Misora (1937–1989), who was known as the "Queen of Enka" and "Queen of Shōwa" for the period when she lived and was popular. Misora's song "Yawara", composed by Masao Koga, won the grand prix award at the 1965 Japan Record Award.[32]

[edit] 1970s: Maintaining popularity

The monument of Sayuri Ishikawa's 1977 hit song "Tsugaru Kaikyo Fuyu Geshiki" at Aomori City

Keiko Fuji's 1970 song "Keiko no Yume wa Yoru Hiraku" won the mass popularity award of the 12th Japan Record Award and the grand prix award of the first Japan Music Award. In 1970, she took part in the 21st Kōhaku Uta Gassen by the song. Her 1970 album "Shinjuku no Onna/'Enka no Hoshi' Fuji Keiko no Subete" (新宿の女/"演歌の星" 藤圭子のすべて Woman in Shinjuku/'Star of Enka' All of Keiko Fuji?) established a still-standing consecutive number-one record to top the Oricon charts for 20 "consecutive" weeks.[33]

The best-selling enka after the Oricon charts began in 1968 is Shiro Miya and Pinkara Trio's 1972 song "Onna no Michi", which sold over 3.25 million copies, the second best-selling single in Japan behind "Oyoge! Taiyaki-kun".

Hiroshi Itsuki's song "Yozora" won the grand prix award at the 15th Japan Record Awards in 1973. Harumi Miyako's song "Kita no Yado kara" also won the grand prix award at the 1976 Japan Record Awards. New enka singers, who debuted in 1970s, included Sayuri Ishikawa and Takashi Hosokawa. Ishikawa and Hosokawa were Michiya Mihashi's pupils.[27]

On the other hand, Shinichi Mori released single "Erimo Misaki" in 1974. Although the song was composed by non-enka musician Takuro Yoshida, "Erimo Misaki" won the grand prix award at the Japan Record Award of that year.

The first non-Japanese singer of enka was Sarbjit Singh Chadha from India. His first enka album was released in 1975 and became a success in Japan, selling 150,000 copies. He went back to India a few years later, but returned to Japan in 2008.[34]

Masao Koga died in 1978, after he composed about five thousand songs.[11] Toru Funamura become self-employed in 1978, beginning live performances and returning to the original position for his old friend Kimio Takano.[25] Keiko Fuji announced her retirement in 1979 and went to the United States.[35]

[edit] 1980s: Bitter struggle

Takashi Hosokawa's song "Kita Sakaba" won the grand prix award at the Japan Record Award in 1982. His song "Yagiri no Watashi" also won the grand prix award in 1983. The total sales of Michiya Mihashi passed 100 million records in 1983, making him the first artist to achieve that in Japan.[27] Ikuzo Yoshi's 1986 single "Yukiguni" became the Oricon's 300th number-one single in 1987.[36] New names around that time included Ayako Fuji. Hibari Misora's 1987 song "Midaregami" still reached number-nine position on the Oricon weekly charts.[37] However, she died in 1989 and the range of enka expanded into the genre kayōkyoku while the genre kayōkyoku was vanishing.[38]

[edit] 1990s: Decline

Hachiro Kasuga died in 1991. Enka music declined in sales and Western-style J-pop music became more popular. Enka's traditional themes were no longer appreciated among younger Japanese. However, the genre still had many adherents. Besides television programs, enka could be heard in many restaurants, drinking establishments, karaoke bars, and cafes. On the other hand, "bright" enka singer Yoshimi Tendo, who was ignored when the "dark" enka songs like Keiko Fuji's song "Keiko no Yume wa Yoru Hiraku" were popular, took part in the Kōhaku Uta Gassen for the first time in 1993.[39]

[edit] 2000s: Certain amount of popularity

African American singer Jero

Its popularity among younger Japanese has increased lately. Kiyoshi Hikawa's 2000 song "Hakone Hachiri no Hanjirō" became a smash hit and made his first number-one single "Hatsukoi Ressha" in 2005. His song "Ikken" won the grand prix award at the Japan Record Award in 2006. The early solo releases of then-Morning Musume member Yuko Nakazawa were also enka. To the contrary, Nana Mizuki, who learned enka in her childhood, became a popular singer as seiyū.[40]

In 2006, Hiroshi Itsuki's single "Takasebune" became his first Top 10 single in 22 years since his 1984 single "Nagaragawa Enka", debuting at the number-nine position on the Oricon charts.[41]

In the United States, enka remained popular among a section of the (typically older) Japanese-American population, and enka also had many fans among non-Japanese. There were some enka orchestras and performers active in the U.S., such as the San Jose Chidori Band, which occasionally performed at O-Bon festivals in the summer. In 2008, Jero became the first black enka singer with his debut single "UmiYuki" to have debuted at #4, wearing hip hop street fashion.[8]

In January 2009, Junko Akimoto became the eldest singer to top the Oricon single charts at the age of 61 by her song "Ai no Mama de..."[42] However, her musical style was in fact 70s' kayōkyoku style.[43]

[edit] Enka artists

Enka artists include:

[edit] See also

[edit] Footnotes

  1. ^ Original text: "昔の人が歌った音資料と楽譜が違って戸惑いもしました"
  2. ^ Original text: "わたし、自分が演歌をうたってるとは思ってませんから。"
    "じっさい、あたしがデビューしたころは、特に演歌なんて言い方はしなかったですよ。"

[edit] References

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  37. ^ (Japanese) "Midaregami". Oricon. http://www.oricon.co.jp/music/release/d/32022/2/. Retrieved on 2009-05-16. 
  38. ^ (Japanese) "第６部・演歌巡礼＜２＞前川清　べたつかぬ距離感で歌う". Nishinippon Shimbun. 2006-12-13. http://www.nishinippon.co.jp/nnp/culture/kayou/20061213/20061213_001.shtml. Retrieved on 2009-05-05. 
  39. ^ (Japanese) "Yoshimi Tendo". Nikkan Sports. 2004-12-26. http://www.nikkansports.com/ns/entertainment/interview/2004/sun041226.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-21. 
  40. ^ (Japanese) "才色兼備の声優シンガーはオリコン2位！アニメ界を牽引する水樹奈々を直撃！". 2008-12-10. http://trendy.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/column/20081203/1021527/. Retrieved on 2009-02-16. 
  41. ^ (Japanese) "五木ひろしの新曲「高瀬舟」　オリコン初登場９位". Yomiuri Shimbun. 2006-05-11. http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/entertainment/music/news/20060511et01.htm. Retrieved on 2009-05-04. 
  42. ^ "Bleach's, Major's Opening Singles Debut at #2, #10". Anime News Network. 2009-01-25. http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2009-01-25/bleach-9th-major-5th-singles-debut-at-no.2-no.10. Retrieved on 2009-05-06. 
  43. ^ (Japanese) "運命的な出会いから生まれたデビュー曲". Nikkei Business Publications. 2008-08-11. http://trendy.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/special/20080807/1017494/?ST=yahoo_headlines&P=2. Retrieved on 2009-05-05. 

[edit] Further reading

Yano, Christine R. Tears of Longing: Nostalgia and the Nation in Japanese Popular Song. Harvard University Asia Center: 2003.

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enka"
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