Ethanol fuel in the United States

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Main articles: Biofuel in the United States and Ethanol fuel
Information on pump regarding ethanol blend up to 10%, California.
Typical manufacture's statement in the car owner's manual regarding the vehicle's capability of using up to E10.

The United States is the world's largest producer of ethanol fuel since 2005. The U.S. produced 9.0 billion U.S. liquid gallons of ethanol fuel in 2008,[1] and together with Brazil, both countries accounted for 89% of the world's production in that year.[1][2] Ethanol fuel is mainly used in the U.S. as an oxygenate to gasoline in the form of low-level blends, and to a lesser extent, as fuel for E85 flex-fuel vehicles.[3] Most ethanol fuel in the U.S. is produced using corn as feedstock.[3]

As of 2007, ethanol market share was about 3% of the U.S. gasoline-vehicle fuel consumption,[3] but domestic production capacity has increased tenfold since 1990, from 900 million of gallons back then, through 1,630 million in 2000, reaching 9,000 million gallons in 2008.[4] Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Portland, Oregon, recently became the first city in the United States to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol.[5] Flexible-fuel cars, trucks, and minivans can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By early 2009, there were approximately eight million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.[6]

The Renewable Fuels Association reports 170 U.S. ethanol distilleries in operation and another 24 under construction as of January 2009.[4] Ethanol production is likely to soar over the next several years, since the Energy Policy Act of 2005 set a renewable fuels standard mandating 7.5 billion gallons of annual domestic renewable-fuel production by 2012. President George W. Bush eventually seeks to generate a western-hemisphere dominated industry that can produce as much as 35 billion gallons (130 billion liters) a year, equal to the entire world's production as of 2007.[7] Expanding ethanol industries provide jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities.[8] However, by early 2009, the industry is under financial stress due to the effects of the economic crisis of 2008 as motorists are driving less, gasoline prices have dropped sharply, there is excess production capacity, and less financing available.[9][10][11]

Due to the fact tha most U.S. ethanol is produced from corn and the required electricity from many distilleries comes mainly from coal plants, there has been considerable debate about how sustainable corn-based bio-ethanol could be in replacing fossil fuels in vehicles. Controversy and concerns relate to the large amount of arable land required for crops and its impact on grain supply, direct and indirect land use change effects, as well as issues regarding its energy balance and carbon intensity considering the full life cycle of ethanol production.[2][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns.[19]

Contents

[edit] History of ethanol in the US

Typical label at the gas pumps warning drivers of ethanol content up to 10%, used as oxygenate additive instead of MTBE. Miami, Florida.

In 1826, Samuel Morey, experimented with a prototypical internal combustion engine that used ethanol (combined with turpentine and ambient air then vaporized) as fuel. At the time, his discovery was overlooked mostly due to the success of steam power. And while ethanol was known of for decades, it received little attention as a fuel until 1860 when Nicholas Otto began experimenting with internal combustion engines. In 1859, oil was found in Pennsylvania which provided a new supply of fuel for the United States. A popular fuel in the U.S. before petroleum was a blend of alcohol and turpentine called "camphene", also known as "burning fluid." With the discovery of a ready supply of oil, kerosene's popularity grew.

in 1896, Henry Ford designed his first car, the "Quadricycle" to run on pure ethanol.[20] Then in 1908, he produced the famous Ford Model T capable of running on gasoline, ethanol or a combination of both.[20][21][22] Ford continued to advocate for ethanol as fuel even during the prohibition, but cheaper oil caused gasoline to prevail.[20]

Gasoline containing up to 10% ethanol has been in increasing use in the United States since the late 1970s. The demand for ethanol fuel produced from field corn was spured by the discovery that methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) was contaminating groundwater.[20][23] MTBE use as a oxygenate additive was widespread due to mandates of the Clean Air Act amendments of 1992 to reduce carbon monoxide emissions. As a result, MTBE use in gasoline was banned in almost 20 states by 2006. There was also concern that widespread and costly litigation might be taken against the U.S. gasoline suppliers, and a 2005 decision refusing legal protection for MTBE, opened a new market for ethanol fuel, the primary substitute for MTBE.[20] At a time when corn prices were around US$2 a bushel, corn growers recognized the potential of this new market and delivered accordingly. This demand shift took place at a time when oil prices were already significantly rising. By 2006, about 50 percent of the gasoline used in the U.S. and more than 85 percent of Hawaii’s gasoline contains ethanol at different proportions.[24]

[edit] Current trends

U.S. fuel ethanol
production and imports
(2001-2008)[1]
(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons)
Year Production Imports Demand
2001 1,770 n/a n/a
2002 2,130 46 2,085
2003 2,800 61 2,900
2004 3,400 161 3,530
2005 3,904 135 4,049
2006 4,855 653 5,377
2007 6,500 450 6,847
2008 9,000 556 9,637
Note: Demand figures includes stocks change
and small exports in 2005

The world's top ethanol fuel producers in 2008 were the United States with 9,000 billion U.S. liquid gallons (bg) and Brazil (6.47 bg), accounting for 89 percent of world production of 17.33 billion US gallons (65.6 million liters).[1] By early 2009, the U.S. ethanol production industry consisted of 170 plants operating in 26 states.[4] The 2008 production from these plants was 38 percent higher over the previous year, and growth has been so steep that the U.S. surpassed Brazil as the worlds largest ethanol producer since 2005.[1] Dozens more plants are under development and due to come on line in 2008 and 2009, increasing U.S. production capacity to nearly 12 billion gallons.[25]

Most of the ethanol consumed in the US is in the form of low blends with gasoline up to 10%. Shown a fuel pump in Maryland selling mandatory E10.
Typical labeling used in the US to remind drivers of the vehicle's E85 capabilities. Top: a small sticker in the back of the fuel filler door. Below left: the bright yellow gas cap now used in newer models. Below right: the E85 Flexfuel badgind used in newer GM models.

However, since late 2008 and early 2009, the industry has been under financial stress due to the effects of the economic crisis of 2008 as motorists are driving less, gasoline prices have dropped sharply, and corn prices have been fluctuating and remaining relatively high. There is also excess production capacity and less bank financing available.[9][10][11] As a result, some plants are working below capacity, several firms have closed some of their plants while others have laid off staff, some firms filed for bankruptcy protection, including former industry leader VeraSun Energy, some new plants construction have been suspended, and several oil companies have been buying ethanol plant at discounted prices.[9][10][11] The Energy Information Administration has raised concerns that the ethanol industry will not meet the targets set by Congress in 2007.[9][26]

Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. In 2007, Portland, Oregon, recently became the first city in the United States to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol.[27][28] As of January 2008, three states - Missouri, Minnesota, and Hawaii - require ethanol to be blended with gasoline motor fuel. Florida made mandatory such blends by the end of 2010.[29] Many cities are also required to use an ethanol blend due to non-attainment of federal air quality goals.[30]

Ford, Chrysler, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell flexible-fuel vehicles that can run gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85), and by 2008 almost any type of automobile and light duty vehicles is available in the market with the flex-fuel option, including sedans, vans, SUVs and pick-up trucks. By mid-2008, there were more than seven million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads,[31] though actual used of E85 fuel is limited, not only because the ethanol fueling infrastructures is limited,[32] but also, as found by a 2005 survey, 68% of American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex.[33][6] This is due to the fact that the exterior of flex and non-flex vehicles look exactly the same; there is no sale price difference between them; the lack of consumer's awareness about E85s; and also the decision of American automakers of not putting any kind of exterior labeling, so buyers can be aware they are getting an E85 vehicle.[33][34] In contrast, all Brazilian automakers clearly mark FFVs with badging or a high quality sticker in the exterior body, with a text that is some variant of the word Flex. As of 2007, many new FFV models in the US now feature a yellow cap to close the fueling line to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities,[35][36] and GM is also using badging with the text "Flexfuel/E85 Ethanol" to clearly mark the car as an E85 FFV.[37][38]

E85 sale banner at a gas station, Rockville, Maryland.
E85 FlexFuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009.

E-85 flex-fuel vehicles are becoming increasingly common in the Midwest, where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production. A major restriction hampering sales of E85 flex vehicles or fueling with E85, is the limited infrastructure available to sell E85 to the public, as by July 2008 there were only 1,706 gasoline filling stations selling E85 to the public in the entire US,[32] with a great concentration of E85 stations in the Corn Belt states, lead by Minnesota with 353 stations, more than any other state, followed by Illinois with 181, and Wisconsin with 114. About another 200 stations that dispense ethanol are restricted to local city, state, and federal government vehicles without access to the general public.[32]

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) predicts in its Annual Energy Outlook 2007 that ethanol consumption will reach 11.2 billion gallons by 2012, outstripping the 7.5 billion gallons required in the Renewable Fuel Standard that was enacted as part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005.[39]

Expanding ethanol (and biodiesel) industries provide jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in tax revenues at the local, state, and federal levels.[40]

Promotional E85 Flexfuel Chevy Tahoe.

Ethanol has less energy than an equivalent volume of gasoline, but can be produced from domestic renewable sources such as corn, sugar beets and sugar cane. There are also industrial processes which use ethanol as an intermediate or final product, mouthwash for example. Companies that serve industrial users of ethanol have been observing the green movement and have found ways to collect and reprocess ethanol. For instance, Veolia, an environmental services company, has been a pioneer in the field of gathering waste ethanol and producing it from other resources. This is a new alternative to the low yielding corn production. Waste ethanol is cleaned up through distillation, which increases the alcohol content to match ethanol produced from corn.

Ethanol is also produced from off specification alcoholic beverages and through the fermentation process of other off specification beverages and products such as out-of-date cola syrup. The resulting liquids are processed through the fermentation and distillation equipment. All the packaging, plastic, aluminum, steel, cardboard and wood pallets, is recycled. The final ethanol product is sold back in to the ethanol market where much of it is used as fuel.[41] In the United States, the newest ethanol recovery plant opened in Medina, Ohio, in July 2008, by Veolia Environmental Services, confirming the green movement in alternative fuel production [42]

[edit] Reduced petroleum imports and costs

New energy corporation's 102 mmgy ethanol plant in South Bend, Indiana.

One rationale given for extensive ethanol production in the U.S. is its benefit to energy security, by shifting the need for some foreign-produced oil to domestically-produced energy sources.[43] Production of ethanol requires significant energy, but current U.S. production derives most of that energy from coal, natural gas and other sources, rather than oil.[44] Because 66% of oil consumed in the U.S. is imported, compared to a net surplus of coal and just 16% of natural gas (2006 figures),[45] the displacement of oil-based fuels to ethanol produces a net shift from foreign to domestic U.S. energy sources.

According to a 2008 analysis by Iowa State University, the growth in US ethanol production has caused retail gasoline prices to be US $0.29 to US $0.40 per gallon lower than would otherwise have been the case.[46]

[edit] Cellulosic ethanol

In his State of the Union Address on January 31, 2006, President George W. Bush stated, “We'll also fund additional research in cutting-edge methods of producing ethanol, not just from corn, but from wood chips and stalks or switchgrass. Our goal is to make this new kind of ethanol practical and competitive within six years.” The U.S. Department of Energy released a report on July 7, 2006 with an ambitious new research agenda for the development of cellulosic ethanol as an alternative to gasoline. The 200-page scientific roadmap cites recent advances in biotechnology that have made cost-effective production of ethanol from cellulose, or inedible plant fiber, an attainable goal, with federal loan guarantees for new cellulosic biorefineries. The report outlines a detailed research plan for developing new technologies to transform cellulosic ethanol - a renewable, cleaner-burning, and carbon-neutral alternative to gasoline - into an economically viable transportation fuel. The Department of Energy has invested in research on enzymatic, thermochemical, acid hydrolysis, hybrid hydrolysis/enzymatic, and a variety of other approaches toward achieving success in discovering an efficient and low cost method of converting cellulose to ethanol.

President Bush's 2007 budget earmarked $150 million for the research effort - more than double the 2006 budget in favor of the cellulosic lobby. Taxpayers and consumers are already shouldering part of the cost: each gallon of ethanol sold is subsidized by a 51-cent/gallon federal tax credit paid to U.S. producers.[47] These subsidies, along with state incentive programs, cost the nation over $2 billion a year, leading legislators to pledge to invest in cellulosic ethanol. Another dampening factor is the short term loss of income to American refiners of crude oil. The U.S. market is especially lucrative, sometimes earning its refiners $30 or more on every barrel of crude oil they refine. Exxon Mobil Corp. earned $1.3 billion in its refining arm in the second quarter, up 11% from a year before. The expectation, over the long run, is that the U.S. economy would more than earn its share back if our primary source of energy were manufactured and processed in the United States, but individual companies could be adversely affected.

[edit] Sugar-based ethanol

 United States fuel ethanol
imports by country (2002-2007)[1]
(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons)
Country 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003
 Brazil 188.8 433.7 31.2 90.3 0
 Jamaica 75.2 66.8 36.3 36.6 39.3
 El Salvador 73.3 38.5 23.7 5.7 6.9
 Trinidad and Tobago 42.7 24.8 10.0 0 0
 Costa Rica 39.3 35.9 33.4 25.4 14.7

Technologically, the process of producing ethanol from sugar is simpler than converting corn into ethanol. Converting corn into ethanol requires additional cooking and the application of enzymes, whereas the conversion of sugar requires only a yeast fermentation process. The energy requirement for converting sugar into ethanol is about half that for corn. With sugar cane there is more than enough energy to do the conversion with energy left over. A 2006 USDA report found that at the current market prices for ethanol, converting sugarcane, sugar beets and molasses to ethanol would be profitable.[48] Research is taking place to improve the productivity of sugarcane ethanol production by breeding new varieties adapted to the US soil and weather conditions, as well as to take advantage of cellulosic ethanol technologies to also convert waste sugarcane bagasse into ethanol.[49][50]

Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. The first three plants to produce sugar cane-based ethanol are expected to go online in Louisiana by mid 2009. Sugar mill plants in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to sugar cane-based ethanol production using Colombian technology in order to make possible a profitable ethanol production. These three plants will produce 100 million gallons of ethanol per year within five years.[50][51][52]

By 2009 two other sugarcane ethanol production projects are being developed in Kauai, Hawaii and Imperial Valley, California. The Hawaiian plant will have a capacity to produce between 12 to 15 million gallons of ethanol a year and will supply the local market only, as sugar prices do not make it competitive for Hawaiian sugarcane ethanol to be sold in the continental US. This production plant is expected to go on line by 2010. The Californian plant will have a capacity to produce 60 million gallons a year and it is expected to go online in 2011.[49]

Presidents Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and George W. Bush during Bush's visit to Brazil, March 2007.

In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy" was the focus of President George W. Bush's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil's president, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout the Caribbean Basin. The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels.[53] The Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer will permit various Central American, such as Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, several Caribbean countries, and various Andean Countries tariff-free trade with the U.S. thanks to existing concessionary trade agreements. The expectation is that using Brazilian technology for refining sugar cane based ethanol, such countries could become exporters to the United States in the short-term.[54]

In 2007, Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad & Tobago and Costa Rica exported together to the U.S. a total of 230.5 million gallons of sugar cane-based ethanol, representing 54.1% of U.S. fuel ethanol imports. Brasil began exporting ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8 million gallons representing 44.3% of U.S. ethanol imports in 2007. The remaining imports that year came from Canada and China.[1]

[edit] Comparison with Brazilian ethanol

Brazil's sugar cane-based ethanol industry is more efficient than the U.S. corn-based industry. Sugar cane ethanol has an energy balance 7 times greater than ethanol produced from corn.[55] Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter, compared with the 30 cents per liter for corn-based ethanol.[56] U.S. corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Despite this cost differential in production, the U.S. does not import more Brazilian ethanol because of U.S. trade barriers corresponding to a tariff of 54-cent per gallon – a levy designed to offset the 45-cent per gallon blender's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin.[57][58][59][60] One advantage U.S. corn-derived ethanol offers is the ability to return 1/3 of the feedstock back into the market as a replacement for the corn used in the form of Distillers Dried Grain.[20]

Comparison of key characteristics between
the ethanol industries in the United States and Brazil
Characteristic  Brazil  U.S. Units/comments
Main feedstock Sugar cane Maize Main cash crop for ethanol production, the US has less than 2% from other crops.
Total ethanol fuel production (2008) [1] 6,472 9,000 Million U.S. liquid gallons
Total arable land [61] 355 270(1) Million hectares.
Total area used for ethanol crop (2006)[20][61] 3.6 (1%) 10 (3.7%) Million hectares (% total arable)
Productivity per hectare [20][55][61][62] 6,800-8,000 3,800-4,000 Liters of ethanol per hectare. Brazil is 727 to 870 gal/acre (2006), US is 321 to 424 gal/acre (2003-05)
Energy balance (input energy productivity) [57][20][63][20] 8.3 to 10.2 1.3 to 1.6 Ratio of the energy obtained from ethanol/energy expended in its production
Estimated greenhouse gas emission reduction[20][2][15] 86-90%(2) 10-30%(2)  % GHGs avoided by using ethanol instead of gasoline, using existing crop land, without ILUC effects.
Full life-cycle carbon intensity[12][64] 73.40 105.10(3) Grams of CO2 equivalent released per MJ of energy produced, includes indirect land use changes.[15]
Estimated payback time for greenhouse gas emission[13] 17 years(4) 93 years(4) Brazilian cerrado for sugar cane and US grassland for corn. Land use change scenarios by Fargione et al. [14]
Flexible-fuel vehicle fleet (autos and light trucks)[65][66][67][6] 7.5 million 8 million Brazil as of April 2009 (FFVs use any blend up to E100). U.S. as of early 2009 (FFVs use E85).
Ethanol fueling stations in the country 35,017 (100%) 1,963 (1%) As % of total gas stations in the country. Brazil by 2007-12,[68] U.S. by 2009-03[69] (170,000 total.[34])
Ethanol's share within the gasoline market[70][71][72][73] 50%(5) 4% As % of total consumption on a volumetric basis. Brazil as of April 2008. US as of December 2006.
Cost of production (USD/gallon)[55] 0.83 1.14 2006/2007 for Brazil (22¢/liter), 2004 for U.S. (35¢/liter)
Government subsidy (in USD)[59][60] 0(6) 0.45/gallon U.S. since 2009-01-01 as a tax credit. Brazilian ethanol production is no longer subsidized.(6)
Import tariffs (in USD)[57][58] 0 0.54/gallon As of June 2009, Brazil does not import any ethanol, the U.S. does.
Notes: (1) Only contiguous U.S., excludes Alaska. (2) Assuming no land use change.[15] (3) CARB estimate for Midwest corn ethanol. California's gasoline carbon intensity is 95.86 blended with 10% ethanol.[12][64] (4) Assuming direct land use change.[14] (5) If diesel-powered vehicles are included and due to ethanol's lower energy content by volume, bioethanol represented 16.9% of the road sector energy consumption in 2007.[74] (6) Brazilian ethanol production is no longer subsidized, but gasoline is heavily taxed favoring ethanol fuel consumption (~54% tax). By the end of July 2008, the average gasoline retail price at the pump in Brazil was USD 6.00 per gallon, while the average U.S. price was USD 3.98 per gallon.[75] The latest gas retail price increase in Brazil occurred in late 2005, when oil price was at USD 60 per barrel.[76]

[edit] Latest developments

On April 23, 2009, the California Air Resources Board approved the specific rules and carbon intensity reference values for the California Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) that will go into effect in January 1, 2011.[77][78][79] During the consultation process there was controversy regarding the inclusion and modeling of indirect land use change effects.[80][81][82][83][84] After the CARB's ruling, among other criticisms, representatives of the US ethanol industry complained that this standard overstates the environmental effects of corn ethanol, and also criticized the inclusion of indirect effects of land-use changes as an unfair penalty to home-made corn ethanol because deforestation in the developing world is being tied to US ethanol production.[85][78][86][87][88][89][90] The initial reference value set for 2011 for LCFS means that Mid-west corn ethanol will not meet the California standard unless current carbon intensity is reduced.[77][91][88][90]

A similar controversy arose after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published on May 5, 2009, its notice of proposed rulemaking for the new Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS).[92][93][94] The draft of the regulations was released for public comment during a 60-day period. EPA's proposed regulations also included the carbon footprint from indirect land-use changes.[95][96] On the same day, President Barack Obama signed a Presidential Directive with the aim to advance biofuels research and improve their commercialization. The Directive established a Biofuels Interagency Working Group comprise of three agencies, the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Department of Energy.[97][98] This group will developed a plan to increase flexible fuel vehicle use and assist in retail marketing efforts. Also they will coordinate infrastructure policies impacting the supply, secure transport, and distribution of biofuels. The group will also come up with policy ideas for increasing investment in next-generation fuels, such as cellulosic ethanol, and for reducing the environmental footprint of growing biofuels crops, particularly corn-based ethanol.[97][98][99]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

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  18. ^ Deforestation diesel – the madness of biofuel
  19. ^ Biofuels look to the next generation
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  27. ^ Portland requires stations to sell biofuels, giving farmers a boost | Post Carbon Cities
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  30. ^ 3 states, many cities: [1]
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  34. ^ a b Inslee, Jay; Bracken Hendricks (2007), Apollo's Fire, Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 153–155, 160–161, ISBN 978-1-59726-175-3 . See Chapter 6. Homegrown Energy. 
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  36. ^ Christine Gable and Scott Gable. "Yellow E85 gas cap". About.com: Hybrid Cars & Alt Fuels. http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/vehiclebuyingguide/ig/Alt-fuels---New-York-Auto-Show/Yellow-E85-gas-cap.htm. Retrieved on 2008-09-18. 
  37. ^ Christine Gable and Scott Gable. "2008 Chevrolet Silverado 1500 4WD LT2 flex-fuel truck test drive". About.com: Hybrid Cars & Alt Fuels. http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/2008flexfuelreviews/fr/08SilveradoFFV_2.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-03. 
  38. ^ Christine Gable and Scott Gable. "2007 Chevrolet Suburban 4WD 1500 LT test drive". About.com: Hybrid Cars & Alt Fuels. http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/flexfuelffvreviews/fr/2007Suburban_2.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-03. 
  39. ^ Industrial Biotechnology Is Revolutionizing the Production of Ethanol Transportation Fuel
  40. ^ Worldwatch Institute and Center for American Progress (2006). American energy: The renewable path to energy security
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  44. ^ http://www.ethanol.org Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals
  45. ^ http://www.eia.doe.gov Energy INFOcard
  46. ^ Ethanol Lowers Gas Prices 29-40 Cents Per Gallon
  47. ^ Financial Times. "Bush Signs Green Fuel Development with Brazil; " March 10-11, 2007, p.3.
  48. ^ “The Economic Feasibility of Ethanol Production from Sugar in the United States” 2006 United States Department of Agriculture http://www.usda.gov/oce/EthanolSugarFeasibilityReport3.pdf.
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  50. ^ a b Jan Suszkiw (October 2008). "Research Helps Set the Stage for Ethanol . . . Southern Style". Agricultural Research Magazine. http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/oct08/ethanol1008.htm?pf=1. Retrieved on 2009-02-12. 
  51. ^ Gerardo Reyes (2008-06-08). "Colombians in U.S. sugar mills to produce ethanol". Miami Herald. http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/06/columbian-group.html. Retrieved on 2008-12-06. 
  52. ^ "LGF web page". Louisiana Green Fuels. http://saldefrutas.com/louisiana/who.html. Retrieved on 2008-12-06.  This site presents the same information included in the Miami Herald article of 2008-06-08.
  53. ^ Marcela Sanchez (2007-02-23). "Latin America -- the 'Persian Gulf' of Biofuels?". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/22/AR2007022201361.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. 
  54. ^ Edmund L. Andrews and Larry Rother (2007-03-03). "U.S. and Brazil Seek to Promote Ethanol in West". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/03/business/worldbusiness/03ethanol.html?scp=1&sq=Bush+Brazil+ethanol&st=nyt. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 
  55. ^ a b c Daniel Budny and Paulo Sotero, editor (2007-04). "Brazil Institute Special Report: The Global Dynamics of Biofuels". Brazil Institute of the Woodrow Wilson Center. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/Brazil_SR_e3.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. 
  56. ^ The Economist, March 3-9th, 2007 "Fuel for Friendship" p. 44
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  58. ^ a b Anna Austin (September 2008). "Brazil launches campaign to remove ethanol tariff". Ethanol Producer Magazine. http://www.ethanolproducer.com/article.jsp?article_id=4591. Retrieved on 2009-06-24.  The U.S. tax credit was reduced from 51 to 45 cents by the 2008 Farm Bill and went into effect on January 1, 2009.
  59. ^ a b Mary Clare Jalonick (2008-05-22). "Congress enacts $290B farm bill over Bush veto". The Seattle Times. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/politics/2004431073_apcongressfarmbill.html. Retrieved on 2009-06-24.  The previous tax credit was 51-cents and it expired on 2008-12-31.
  60. ^ a b "Ethanol Tax Credit Reduced Janyary 1 2009!!". Gasoline & Automotive Dealers of America. 2008-12-31. http://www.gasda.org/Lists/Announcements/DispForm.aspx?ID=33. Retrieved on 2009-06-24. 
  61. ^ a b c Julia Duailibi (2008-04-27). "Ele é o falso vilão" (in Portuguese). Veja Magazine. http://veja.abril.com.br/300408/p_058.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. 
  62. ^ Maria Helena Tachinardi (2008-06-13). "Por que a cana é melhor que o milho" (in Portuguese). Época Magazine. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI5865-15273.html. Retrieved on 2008-08-06.  Print editon pp. 73
  63. ^ Macedo Isaias, M. Lima Verde Leal and J. Azevedo Ramos da Silva (2004). "Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in the production and use of fuel ethanol in Brazil" (PDF). Secretariat of the Environment, Government of the State of São Paulo. http://www.eners.ch/plateforme/medias/macedo_2004.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 
  64. ^ a b "Draft Attachment B: Public Hearing to Consider Adoption of a Proposed Regulation to Implement the Low Carbon Fuel Standard - Staff’s Suggested Modifications to the Original Proposal" (pdf). CARB. 2003-04-23. http://www.arb.ca.gov/fuels/lcfs/lcfs_att_b_mod.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-30. 
  65. ^ "Produção de Automóveis por Tipo e Combustível - 2009 (Tabela 10)" (in Portuguese) (PDF). ANFAVEA - Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brasil). http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas/autoveiculos/tabela10_producao.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-05-30.  Production up to April 2009
  66. ^ "Anúario Estatístico 2008: Tabelas 2.1-2.2-2.3 Produção por combustível - 1957/2007" (in Portuguese) (PDF). ANFAVEA - Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brasil). http://www.anfavea.com.br/anuario2008/capitulo2a.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-08. 
  67. ^ "Produção de Automóveis por Tipo e Combustível - 2008 (Tabela 10)" (in Portuguese) (PDF). ANFAVEA - Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brasil). http://www.anfavea.com.br/tabelas2008/autoveiculos/tabela10_producao.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-08. 
  68. ^ "Anuário Estatístico Brasileiro do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis 2008" (in Portuguese). Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis. 2008. http://www.anp.gov.br/doc/conheca/anuario_anp_2008.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-07-10.  See Table 3.17, pp. 138.
  69. ^ National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition (2009-03-09). "New E85 Stations". NEVC FYI Newsletter (Vol 15 Issue 5). http://www.e85fuel.com/news/fyi/030609fyi.htm. Retrieved on 2009-05-24. 
  70. ^ Agência Brasil (2008-07-15). "ANP: consumo de álcool combustível é 50% maior em 2007" (in Portuguese). Invertia. http://br.invertia.com/noticias/noticia.aspx?idNoticia=200807152306_ABR_77211977. Retrieved on 2008-08-09. 
  71. ^ Gazeta Mercantil (2008). "ANP estima que consumo de álcool supere gasolina" (in Portuguese). Agropecuária Brasil. http://www.agropecuariabrasil.com.br/anp-estima-que-consumo-de-alcool-supere-gasolina/. Retrieved on 2008-08-09. 
  72. ^ D. Sean Shurtleff (2008-05-07). "Brazil's energy plan examined". The Washington Times. http://www.washingtontimes.com/article/20080507/COMMENTARY/381443705/1012/commentary. Retrieved on 2008-05-10. 
  73. ^ Energy Information Administration (August 2007). "Renewable Energy Consumption and Electricity Preliminary 2006 Statistics: Ethanol". EIA. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/prelim_trends/rea_prereport.html#_ftn4. Retrieved on 2008-08-09. 
  74. ^ Empresa de Pesquisa Energética (November 2008). "Balanço Energético Nacional 2008: Ano base 2007" (in Portuguese) (PDF (link to download)). Ministério de Minas e Energia do Brasil. http://www.mme.gov.br/site/menu/select_main_menu_item.do?channelId=1432&pageId=17726. Retrieved on 2009-02-22.  Tables 3.6a and 3.6b. Data expressed in energy equivalent (toe). Report is based in 2007 data.
  75. ^ Daniel Bergamasco and Roberto Machado (2008-08-27). "Imposto põe gasolina brasileira entre as mais caras" (in Portuguese). Folha de São Paulo Online. http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/dinheiro/ult91u438347.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-08-29.  Brazilian gasoline is among the most expensive in the world. The price of USD 6.00 per gallon results from the Brazilian average price of R$ 2.50 per liter converted at a exchange rate of R$ 1.575 per USD by late July 2008.
  76. ^ UOL noticias (2008-04-30). "Brasil eleva preço do combustível às refinaria; consumidor não será afetado" (in Portuguese). UOL. http://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/economia/2008/04/30/ult1767u119290.jhtm. Retrieved on 2008-08-29. 
  77. ^ a b Wyatt Buchanan (2009-04-24). "Air Resoures Board moves to cut carbon use". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/04/23/BABA1782HB.DTL&type=green&tsp=1. Retrieved on 2009-04-25. 
  78. ^ a b The Associated Press (2009-04-24). "Calif. Approves Nation's 1st Low-Carbon Fuel Rule". New York Times. http://nytimes.com/aponline/2009/04/24/us/AP-US-Low-Carbon-Fuel.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-25. 
  79. ^ UNICA Press release (2009-04-24). "Sugarcane Ethanol Passes Critical Test in California". World-Wire. http://world-wire.com/news/0904230003.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-25. 
  80. ^ "Public letter to Mary D. Nichols, Chairman California Air Resources Board" (PDF). BioenergyWiki. 2008-06-24. http://www.bioenergywiki.net/images/7/7b/DOE_letter.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-28. 
  81. ^ "Leading Advanced Biofuel Companies, Researchers, Investors Call on Air Resources Board to Reconsider Draft Low Carbon Fuel Regulations" (PDF). New Fuels Alliance. 2008-10-23. http://www.newfuelsalliance.org/NFA%20ARB%20ILUC%20Press%20Release%20Final.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-26. 
  82. ^ "Biofuel Companies Question ARB’s Inclusion of Indirect Effects in Low Carbon Fuel Standard". Green Car Congress. 2008-10-24. http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/10/biofuel-compani.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-28. 
  83. ^ "Public letter to Mary D. Nichols, Chairman California Air Resources Board" (PDF). Union of Concerned Scientists. 2009-04-21. http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/clean_vehicles/call_to_action_biofuels_and_land_use_change.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-26. 
  84. ^ "Group of Scientists and Economists Urge Inclusion of Indirect Land Use Change Effects for Biofuels and All Transportation Fuels in California LCFS". Green Car Congress. 2009-04-21. http://www.greencarcongress.com/2009/04/usc-lcfs-20090421.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-28. 
  85. ^ Debra Kahn (2009-04-24). "California Adopts Low-Carbon Fuel Standar". Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=california-adopts-low-carF. Retrieved on 2009-05-04. 
  86. ^ David R. Baker (2009-04-22). "State readies stringent fuel standards". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/04/21/MN81175SHB.DTL. Retrieved on 2009-04-25. 
  87. ^ Kate Galbraith (2009-04-24). "California Fuel Move Angers Ethanol Makers". New York Times. http://greeninc.blogs.nytimes.com/tag/low-carbon-fuel-standard/?scp=1-b&sq=Calif.+approves+nation%27s+1st+low+carbon+fuel+standard&st=nyt. Retrieved on 2009-04-29. 
  88. ^ a b Jim Lane (2009-02-24). "CARB votes 9-1 for California Low Carbon Fuel Standard; moves up indirect land use review to Jan 2011 in response to outcry on ILUC". BiofuelsDigest. http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/blog2/2009/04/24/carb-votes-9-1-for-california-low-carbon-fuel-standard-moves-up-indirect-land-use-review-to-jan-2011-in-response-to-outcry-on-iluc/. Retrieved on 2009-04-29. 
  89. ^ Jeff St. John (2009-04-23). "California Adopts Low Carbon Fuel Standard". GreenMedia. http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/california-adopts-low-carbon-fuel-standard-6083.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-04. 
  90. ^ a b Dale Kasler (2009-04-25). "California's low-carbon fuel standard has oil companies anxious". The Sacramento Bee. http://www.sacbee.com/capitolandcalifornia/story/1808713.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-04. 
  91. ^ "California adopts first-ever low-carbon fuel rule". CNN News. 2009-04-23. http://money.cnn.com/2009/04/23/news/economy/california.reut/index.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-28. 
  92. ^ "Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2): Notice of Proposed Rulemaking". US Environmental Protection Agency. 2009-05-05. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/renewablefuels/#regulations. Retrieved on 2009-05-06. 
  93. ^ Jim Tankersley (2009-05-06). "New standards could cut tax breaks for corn-based ethanol". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-corn-ethanol6-2009may06,0,2321568.story. Retrieved on 2009-05-06. 
  94. ^ Suzanne Goldenberg (2009-05-06). "Barack Obama's $1.8bn vision of greener biofuel". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/may/06/obama-ethanol-green-biofuel. Retrieved on 2009-05-06. 
  95. ^ Jennifer Kho (2009-05-05). "Corn Ethanol Crew Cries Foul Over EPA Emissions Ruling". earth2tech.com. http://earth2tech.com/2009/05/05/corn-ethanol-crew-cries-foul-over-epa-emissions-ruling/. Retrieved on 2009-05-06. 
  96. ^ UNICA Press Release (2009-05-05). "Sugarcane Ethanol Industry Eager to Implement U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard". National Press Release. http://triangle.bizjournals.com/triangle/prnewswire/press_releases/national/California/2009/05/05/SPTU003. Retrieved on 2009-05-06. 
  97. ^ a b "President Obama Announces Steps to Support Sustainable Energy Options, Departments of Agriculture and Energy, Environmental Protection Agency to Lead Efforts". The White House. 2009-05-05. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/President-Obama-Announces-Steps-to-Support-Sustainable-Energy-Options/. Retrieved on 2009-05-05. 
  98. ^ a b Matthew L. Wald (2009-05-05). "White House Steps Up Support for Biofuels". New York Times. http://greeninc.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/white-house-steps-up-support-for-biofuels/. Retrieved on 2009-05-05. 
  99. ^ Ben Geman (2009-05-05). "Obama Administration Prepares to Push Biofuels". Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=obama-administration-pushes-biofuels. Retrieved on 2009-05-05. 

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