List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Fathers of scientific fields)
Jump to: navigation, search

Those known as the father or mother of a scientific field are considered to be the founder of that scientific field. In some fields several people are considered the founders, while in others the title of being the "mother" or "father" is debatable.

Contents

[edit] Natural sciences

[edit] Biology

Subject Father / mother of ... Reason
Bacteriology Robert Koch, Ferdinand Cohn, Louis Pasteur[1] (founders)
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[2]		 For their studies and scientific findings on bacteria and algae.
First to produce precise, correct descriptions of bacteria.
Biology[3] Aristotle[4]
Entomology Jan Swammerdam (founder)[5]
Johan Christian Fabricius[6]
William Kirby[7]		 (Fabricius): Described and published information on over 10,000 insects, and refined Linnaeus's system of classification.
Evolution Charles Darwin[8][9][10] Publication: On the Origin of Species
Genetics Gregor Mendel[11]
William Bateson (founder)[12]		 For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance.
Proponent of Mendelism.
Ichthyology Peter Artedi[13]
Lichenology Erik Acharius[14]
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[15] The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria
Molecular biology Linus Pauling[16]
Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran[17] Founded the Molecular Biophysics Unit (1970)
Natural selection Charles Darwin[18][19][20] Publication: On the Origin of Species
Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal[21]
(founder)		 For his formation of neuron doctrine
Paleontology George Cuvier[22]
Protozoology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[2] First to produce precise, correct descriptions of protozoa.
Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus
[23](founder)		 Naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world
Toxicology Paracelsus[24]
Virology Martinus Beijerinck[25]
(founder)		 His studies of agricultural microbiology and industrial microbiology yielded fundamental discoveries in the field of biology

[edit] Chemistry

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Atomic theory (early) Democritus[26] Founder of atomism in cosmology
Atomic theory (modern) Father Roger Boscovich[27]
John Dalton[28]		 First coherent description of atomic theory, well over a century before modern atomic theory emerged
First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures
Chemical thermodynamics (modern) Gilbert Lewis, Willard Gibbs, Merle Randall, and Edward Guggenheim (founders)[29] Books: Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933); because of the major contributions of these two books in unifying the applications of thermodynamics to chemistry
Chemistry (early) Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)[30][31][32][33] Introduced the experimental method in alchemy (d. 815)
Chemistry (modern) Antoine Lavoisier[34]
Robert Boyle[34]
Jöns Berzelius[35][36]
John Dalton[34] (founders)		 Book: Elements of Chemistry (1787)
Book: The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)
Revival of atomic theory (1803)
Nuclear chemistry Otto Hahn[37] Book: Applied Radiochemistry (1936)
First person to split an atomic nucleus (1938)
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of nuclear fission (1944)
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev[38] Arranged sixty-six elements (known at the time) in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869)
Physical chemistry Hermann von Helmholtz,

Willard Gibbs(founders)[39]

 Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry through their publications off, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances(1876), and Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange(1882)

[edit] Earth sciences

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Geodesy Eratosthenes[40]
Geology (modern) Father Nicholas Steno [41]

James Hutton[42]

 For setting down most of the principles of modern geology.
For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory of thought.
Limnology (modern) G. Evelyn Hutchinson[43]
Mathematical geography Eratosthenes (founder)[44]
Mineralogy Georgius Agricola[45]
Meteorology Matthew Fontaine Maury[46]
Plate tectonics Alfred Wegener
Acoustical oceanography[47] Leonid Brekhovskikh
Naval oceanography (modern) Matthew Fontaine Maury[46]
Stratigraphy Father Nicholas Steno [41]

[edit] Medicine and physiology

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Audiology Raymond Carhart[48][49]
Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck[50]
Emergency medicine Peter Safar[51][52]
Frank Pantridge[53]		 Safar: Pioneered CPR, intensive-care units, developed standards for EMT, ambulance design and equipment.
Fitness Jack LaLanne[54]
Gynaecology J. Marion Sims[55][56]
Human anatomy (modern) Vesalius[57]
 Book: De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
Medical genetics Victor McKusick[58] Created Mendelian Inheritance in Man
Medicine (early) Imhotep[59][60]
Charaka[61]		 Wrote the first medical treatise, the Edwin Smith papyrus.
Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.
Medicine (modern) Hippocrates[4][62][63][64]
 Prescribed practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath, establishing the profession.
Modern dentistry Pierre Fauchard[65]
Modern nutrition Justus von Liebig[66]

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier[67]
Modern psychology Wilhelm Wundt[68] Founded the first laboratory for psychological research.
Nursing (modern) Florence Nightingale[69]
Organ transplantation Thomas Starzl[70] Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin. Developed major advances in organ preservation, procurement, and transplantation.
Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes)[71] Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field
Physiology Claude Bernard[72] Publication: An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)
Physical culture Bernarr Macfadden[73]
Plastic surgery Sushruta[74][75] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud[76]
Psychophysics Gustav Fechner[77] Founded the discipline of psychophysics in his Elements of Psychophysics (1860)
Space medicine Hubertus Strughold[78]
Surgery (early) Sushruta[74][75] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita, the first surgical treatise
Surgery (modern)


See also: Father of modern surgery		 Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis)[79]
Guy de Chauliac[80]
Ambroise Paré[81]
John Hunter[82][83]
Joseph Lister[84][85]
William Stewart Halsted[86]		 Publication: Kitab al-Tasrif (1000).
Publication: Chirurgia magna.
Leader in surgical techniques, especially the treatment of wounds.
Experimental, scientific approach to surgery.
Use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic.
Introduction of residency system to the U.S.

[edit] Physics and astronomy

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Acoustics Ernst Chladni[87] For important research in vibrating plates
Aerodynamics Nikolai Zhukovsky
George Cayley[88]
 Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton (founder)[89] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
Electricity William Gilbert[90]
Michael Faraday[citation needed]
Thomas Edison[91]
Nikola Tesla[citation needed]		 Book: De Magnete (1600)
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Proposed a kite experiment to prove that lightning is electricity (1750)
Invented many electrical devices, such as the carbon microphone
Invented alternating current and many other electrical devices
Energetics Willard Gibbs[92] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
Experimental physics (founder) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[93][94] For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021)
Modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus[95] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
Modern physics Galileo Galilei[96] His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford[97] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
Nuclear science Marie Curie
Pierre Curie[98]
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[99] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
Quantum mechanics Max Planck (founder)[100] Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
Relativity Albert Einstein (founder)[101] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
Spaceflight (Rocketry) Robert Hutchings Goddard
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Hermann Oberth		 Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.
Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot (founder)[102] Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)

[edit] Formal sciences

[edit] Mathematics

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Algebra
See also Father of Algebra Brahmagupta		 Brahmagupta Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[103][104]
Diophantus[105][106]		 Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.
First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica.
Analysis Augustin-Louis Cauchy[107]
Karl Weierstrass[108]
Analytic geometry René Descartes
Pierre de Fermat[109](founders)		 For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System
Calculus Isaac Newton[110]
Gottfried Leibniz		 See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama[111] Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions
Computer science George Boole
Alan Turing		 Invented Boolean logic, which is the basis of modern digital computer logic
Provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine.
Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge[112]
(founder)		 Developed a graphical protocol which creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
Geometry Euclid[113] Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
Graph Theory Leonhard Euler[114] See Seven Bridges of Königsberg
Italian school of algebraic geometry Corrado Segre[115] Publications and students developing algebraic geometry
Non-Euclidean geometry János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[116](founders)		 Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
Number theory Pythagoras[117]
Probability Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens[118] (founders) Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book
Projective geometry Gérard Desargues[119](founder) By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[120]
(founder)		 Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
Trigonometry Aryabhatta Hipparchus[121][122] Constructed the first trigonometric table.
Vector algebra,
Vector calculus		 Willard Gibbs[39]
Oliver Heaviside[123]
(founders)		 For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

[edit] Systems theory

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Chaos theory Edward Lorenz [124] Lorenz attractor
Cybernetics Norbert Wiener [125] Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.
Dynamic programming Richard E. Bellman
Fuzzy logic Lotfi Asker Zadeh
Information theory Claude Shannon[126] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
Optimal control Arthur E. Bryson[127] Book: Applied Optimal Control[128]
Robust control George Zames[citation needed] Small gain theorem and H infinity control.
Stability theory Alexander Lyapunov[citation needed] Lyapunov function

[edit] Social sciences

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Anthropology Herodotus[129]
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[130][131]
Demography Ibn Khaldun[132] Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
Egyptology Father Athanasius Kircher[133]

Jean-François Champollion[citation needed]

 First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery.
Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.
Indology Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[131] Wrote the Indica
Political science (modern) Niccolò Machiavelli[134] Discussion of and concern with how people actually behave, as opposed to how people should behave.
Sociology Ibn Khaldun[132][135]
Adam Ferguson[136]
Auguste Comte[137]
Marquis de Condorcet (founder)[138]		 Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).
"Father of modern sociology"
Introduced the scientific method into sociology.

[edit] Economics

[edit] Fields

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Economics (early) Ibn Khaldun[139]
Chanakya / Kautilya[140]		 Publication: Muqaddimah (1370)
Publication: Arthashastra (400 BCE - 200 CE)
Economics (modern) Richard Cantillon[141]
Anders Chydenius[142]
Adam Smith[143]		 First specific treatise on economics
First published a pamphlet called The National Gain included idea about free trade 1765[144]

Publication: The Wealth of Nations (1776)
Evolutionary economics, Ecological economics, Thermoeconomics and Bioeconomics Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen[145][146][147][148][149] Published: The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971)[150]
Mathematical economics Daniel Bernoulli Forerunner of the Tableau économique[151]
Monetary economics Nicole Oresme[152] Work: De Moneta
Microcredit Muhammad Yunus[153] Founded Grameen Bank
Personnel economics Edward Lazear Published the first paper in the field.

[edit] Schools of thought

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Austrian School Carl Menger[154]
Communism Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
David Ricardo[155]
School of Salamanca Francisco de Vitoria[156] Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality

[edit] Theories

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Expectations theory Thomas Cardinal Cajetan[157] Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money
Modern portfolio theory Harry Markowitz[158]
Social choice theory Kenneth Arrow Created the field with his 1951 book, Social Choice and Individual Values

[edit] Other

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Modern science Galileo Galilei[159][160] For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy
Scientific method Francis Bacon[161] Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620).
Family and Consumer Science Ellen Swallow Richards Founded the American Association of Home Economics, currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences. "Bringing science into the home, Richards hoped to “attain the best physical, mental, and moral development” for the family, which she believed was the basic unit of civilization." [162]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
  2. ^ a b p. 18, Foundations in microbiology: basic principles, Kathleen Park Talaro, 6th ed., international ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007, ISBN 978-007-126232-3.
  3. ^ Suggested 1802 by German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term that year in France by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
  4. ^ a b Strong, W.F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys", Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521, http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php 
  5. ^ p. 208, A history of social thought, Paul Hanly Furfey, The Macmillan company, 1942.
  6. ^ p. 162, Museum: the Macleays, their collections and the search for order, Robyn Stacey, Ashley Hay, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 052187453X.
  7. ^ p. 118, The fossil hunter: dinosaurs, evolution, and the woman whose discoveries changed the world, Shelley Emling, Macmillan, 2009, ISBN 0230611567.
  8. ^ Darwin, Charles (1842 (published 1909)), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  9. ^ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  10. ^ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  11. ^ The Father of Genetics
  12. ^ p. 91, Theory change in science: strategies from Mendelian genetics, Lindley Darden, Oxford University Press US, 1991, ISBN 0195067975.
  13. ^ Jordan, David Starr (1905). A Guide to the Study of Fishes. Henry Holt and Company. , online at [1], p.390: "Far greater than either of these... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."
  14. ^ "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology," Department of Cryptogamic Botany, Swedish Museum of Natural History. Link. 17 December 1999.
  15. ^ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
  16. ^ Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University
  17. ^ Prathap, Gangan (March 2004), "Indian science slows down: The decline of open-ended research", Current Science 86 (6): 768–769 [768] 
  18. ^ Darwin, Charles (1842 (published 1909)), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  19. ^ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  20. ^ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  21. ^ Ramón y Cajal, Santiago [1897] (1999). Advice for a Young Investigator, translated by Neely Swanson and Larry W. Swanson, Cambridge: MIT Press.
  22. ^ p. 287, On social structure and science (volume 1996 of Heritage of sociology), Robert King Merton and Piotr Sztompka, University of Chicago Press, 1996, ISBN 0226520714.
  23. ^ Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
  24. ^ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
  25. ^ Chung, King-Thom and Ferris, Deam Hunter (1996). Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931): pioneer of general microbiology. AMS News 62, 539-543.
  26. ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 10. ISBN 094546648X. http://mises.org/books/histofthought1.pdf. 
  27. ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  28. ^ Patterson, Elizabeth C. (1970). John Dalton and the Atomic Theory. Garden City, New York: Anchor. p. 10. 
  29. ^ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2. 
  30. ^ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica A 64: 246–258 [247] 
  31. ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
  32. ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
  33. ^ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
  34. ^ a b c Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity , That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution (Epilogue: A Tale of Three Fathers). ISBN 0-262-11273-6. 
  35. ^ Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
  36. ^ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2 Aug 2007
  37. ^ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938.
  38. ^ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
  39. ^ a b Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  40. ^ p. 12, Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international date line, Avraham Ariel and Nora Ariel Berger, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0275988953.
  41. ^ a b Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 96. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  42. ^ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
  43. ^ G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)
  44. ^ p. 389, "Eratosthenes", D. R. Dicks, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie, vol. 4, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.
  45. ^ p. 19, Reader's guide to the history of science, Arne Hessenbruch, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 188496429X.
  46. ^ a b Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
  47. ^ Mikhalevsky, P; Godin, O; Naugolnykh, K; Dubrovsky, N (2005). "Leonid Maksimovich Brekhovskikh". Physics Today 58 (11): 70. Bibcode 2005PhT....58k..70M. doi:10.1063/1.2155769. 
  48. ^ Hall, James W. (1999). Handbook of Otoacoustic Emissions. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-873-9. , p. 2: the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University..."
  49. ^ Hall, James W.; H. Gustav Mueller (1998). Audiologists Desk Reference: Audiolologic Management, Rehabilitation and Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-711-2. , p. 912: "Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."
  50. ^ Durand, V. Mark, Jim; David H Barlow (2005). Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-03128-3. , p. 235: "In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."
  51. ^ Acierno, LJ; Worrell, LT (January 2007). "Peter Safar: father of modern cardiopulmonary resuscitation". Clinical cardiology 30 (1): 52–4. doi:10.1002/clc.20042. ISSN 0160-9289. PMID 17262769. 
  52. ^ Mitka, Mike (May 2003). "Peter J. Safar, MD: 'father of CPR,' innovator, teacher, humanist". JAMA 289 (19): 2485–6. doi:10.1001/jama.289.19.2485. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 12759308. http://www.safar.pitt.edu/content/news/2003/images/Mitka-JAMA%202003.pdf. 
  53. ^ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12/29/2004.
  54. ^ Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'"
  55. ^ Log In Problems
  56. ^ History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology
  57. ^ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
  58. ^ Geneticists Mourn Loss of the ‘Father of Genetic Medicine’
  59. ^ Mostafa Shehata MD (2004). "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration". J Med Ethics 12: 171–176 [176]. 
  60. ^ = DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2007/05/10/scegypt10.xml How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007.
  61. ^ Nirupama Laroia M.D., Sharma Deeksha (2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus". Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2): 94–98. 
  62. ^ Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus., U.S. National Library of Medicine
  63. ^ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 2009-10-31.
  64. ^ p. 4, Surgery: Basic Science and Clinical Evidence, Jeffrey A. Norton, Philip S. Barie, R. Randal Bollinger, Alfred E. Chang, Stephen F. Lowry, Sean J Mulvihill, M.D., Harvey I Pass, M.D., Robert W Thompson, M.D., Springer, 2008, ISBN 0387308008.
  65. ^ de Vaux, Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy". http://www.fauchard.org/publications/remembrance.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-22. 
  66. ^ Black, Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0208-0. , p.9: "Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of wheat flour, cow's milk, malt flour and bicarbonate of potash."
  67. ^ In addition to being known as the "Father of Modern Chemistry", Lavoisier is also considered the "Father of Modern Nutrition", as being the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body. Lavoisier, Antoine. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007.
  68. ^ Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online
  69. ^ Nursing#History of nursing
  70. ^ Cronin, Mike (2010-01-29). "Starzl, Tribune-Review reporters claim Carnegie Science Awards". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/pittsburgh/s_664527.html. Retrieved 2010-01-29. 
  71. ^ Tschanz David W., PhD (2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine". Heart Views 4: 2. 
  72. ^ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
  73. ^ Oursler, Fulton; Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday. , p.270: "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."
  74. ^ a b A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
  75. ^ a b H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
  76. ^ Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
  77. ^ Aaen-Stockdale, Craig (2008), "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics", Perception 37 (4): 636–638 
  78. ^ Lee, Martin A.; Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3062-3. , p.6: "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'". See also Harry Armstrong.
  79. ^ Martin-Araguz A., Bustamante-Martinez C., Fernandez-Armayor Ajo V., Moreno-Martinez J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine". Revista de neurología 34 (9): 877–892. 
  80. ^ p. 283, Old-Time Makers of Medicine, James J. Walsh, New York: Fordham University Press, 1911.
  81. ^ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
  82. ^ Gray C (May 1983). "The remarkable surgical collection of John Hunter". Can Med Assoc J 128 (10): 1225–8. PMC 1875296. PMID 6340814. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1875296. 
  83. ^ The knife man: the extraordinary life and times of John Hunter, father of modern surgery, Wendy Moore, Random House, 2005, ISBN 0767916522.
  84. ^ pp. 51-55, Pioneers of microbiology and the Nobel prize, Ulf Lagerkvist, World Scientific, 2003, ISBN 9812382348.
  85. ^ Joseph Lister, Father of Modern Surgery, Rhoda Truax, Bobbs Merrill, Indianapolis and New York, 1944.
  86. ^ "William S. Halsted and Harvey W. Cushing: reflections on their complex association", J. R. Voorhees, R. S. Tubbs, B. Nahed, and A. A. Cohen-Gadol, Journal of Neurosurgery 110, #2 (February 2009), pp. 384-390, doi:10.3171/2008.4.17516 , PMID 18976064.
  87. ^ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
  88. ^ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
  89. ^ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
  90. ^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
  91. ^ Kurland, Gerald. 91972). Thomas Edison, father of electricity and master inventor of our modern age, Charlotteville, N.Y.: SamHar Press.
  92. ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911
  93. ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 15: 329–331 
  94. ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (August 2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928–2005", Historia Mathematica 32 (3): 271–274 
  95. ^ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
  96. ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0595368778.
  97. ^ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5. 
  98. ^ Resources
  99. ^ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
  100. ^ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
  101. ^ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6. 
  102. ^ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
  103. ^ Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, The Hindu, June 23, 2006.
  104. ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 228. ISBN 0471543977. "Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khwarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers." 
  105. ^ Derbyshire, John (2006). "The Father of Algebra". Unknown Quantity: A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 31. ISBN 030909657X. "Diophantus, the father of algebra, in whose honor I have named this chapter, lived in Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, in either the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd century CE." 
  106. ^ p. 750, Rudiments of Mathematics Part 1, M. N. Mukherjee, P. Mukhopadhyay, S. Sinha Roy & U. Dasgupta, Academic Publishers, 2008, 5th ed., ISBN 8189781545.
  107. ^ p. 147, Collisions, rings, and other Newtonian N-body problems, Donald Saari, American Mathematical Society, 2005, ISBN 0821832506.
  108. ^ Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
  109. ^ Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–2.
  110. ^ George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press.
  111. ^ "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>.
  112. ^ Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
  113. ^ Biggs, N. Lloyd, E. and Wilson, R. (1986). Graph Theory, 1736-1936 . London: Oxford University Press
  114. ^ H.F. Baker (1926), "Corrado Segre", Journal of the London Mathematical Society 1:269
  115. ^ Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
  116. ^ p. 46, Aristarchus of Samos: The Ancient Copernicus, Thomas Heath, Oxford, 1913.
  117. ^ Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
  118. ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  119. ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  120. ^ Boyer (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 162. ISBN 0471543977. "For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180-ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as "the father of trigonometry." Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles." 
  121. ^ Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE (Ore (1988). "Diophantine Problems". Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc.. pp. 176–179. ISBN 0-486-65620-9. "The tablet, catalogued as Plimpton 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans... It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables." )
  122. ^ Michael J. Crowe (1994). A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System. Dover Publications; Reprint edition.
  123. ^ Edward Lorenz, father of chaos theory and butterfly effect, dies at 90 - MIT News Office
  124. ^ Conway, F., and Siegelman, J., 2005. Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert Wiener, the father of cybernetics. Basic Books, New York. 423pp. ISBN 0-7382-0368-8
  125. ^ Bell Labs website: "For example, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, had a passion..."
  126. ^ 2004 Distinguished Alumni
  127. ^ Bryson, A.E.; Ho, Y.C. (1975). Applied optimal control. Washington, DC: Hemisphere. 
  128. ^ p. 22, A Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900, Charles Singer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
  129. ^ Ahmed Akbar S (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". RAIN 60: 9–10. 
  130. ^ a b Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  131. ^ a b H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
  132. ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 109. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  133. ^ Hart, Michael H. (1989). "The 100: A ranking of the most influential persons in history", New York: Carol Publishing group. pg. 465
  134. ^ Dr , Akhtar S. W. (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge". Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12: 3. 
  135. ^ Willcox, William Bradford; Arnstein, Walter L. (1966). The Age of Aristocracy, 1688 to 1830. Volume III of A History of England, edited by Lacey Baldwin Smith (Sixth Edition, 1992 ed.). Lexington, MA. p. 133. ISBN 0-669-24459-7. "Adam Ferguson of Edinburgh became "the father of modern sociology."" 
  136. ^ Auguste Comte, Britannica Student Encyclopedia. Accessed October 5, 2006.
  137. ^ p. 87, Full Meridian of Glory, Paul Murdin, New York: Springer, 2009, ISBN 978-0-387-75533-5 (print), ISBN 978-0-387-75534-2 (online).
  138. ^ I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0887066984.
  139. ^ L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", International Journal ertrtrtrtof Social Economics 25 (2-4), p. 267-282
  140. ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). "Chapter 12 — The founding father of modern economics: Richard Cantillon". Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. pp. 345. ISBN 094546648X. "The honour of being called the 'father of modern economics' belongs, then, not to its usual recipient, Adam Smith, but to a gallicized Irish merchant, banker, and adventurer who wrote the first treatise on economics more than four decades before the publication of the Wealth of Nations. Richard Cantillon (c. early 1680s-1734)..." 
  141. ^ Pelo, June. "Anders Chydenius". http://sydaby.eget.net/swe/jp_chydenius.htm. Retrieved 2007-11-26. 
  142. ^ Steven Pressman. Fifty Major Economists. (1999). Routledge. ISBN 0415134811 p.20
  143. ^ "Acton Institute: Anders Chydenius (1729 - 1803)". http://www.acton.org/publications/randl/rl_liberal_en_563.php. Retrieved 2007-11-26. 
  144. ^ Cleveland C., Ruth M. (1997). "When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process? A survey of Georgescu-Roegen's contribution to ecological economics". Ecological Economics 22: 203–223. 
  145. ^ Daly H (1995). "On Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen's contributions to economics: An obituary essay". Ecological Economics 13: 149–54. 
  146. ^ Mayumi K (1995). "Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906-1994) an admirable epistemologist". Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 6: 115–120. 
  147. ^ Mayumi, Kozo; Gowdy, John, eds. (1999). Bioeconomics and Sustainability: Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. ISBN 1858986672. 
  148. ^ Mayumi, Kozo (2001). The Origins of Ecological Economics: The Bioeconomics of Georgescu-Roegen. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0415235235. 
  149. ^ A principal contribution to economics by Georgescu-Roegen was the concept of entropy from thermodynamics as well as foundational work which later developed into evolutionary economics. His work also contributed significantly to the emergence of the fields of thermoeconomics (or biophysical economics, bioeconomics and ecological economics.
  150. ^ Rothbard, p 379
  151. ^ Woods, p 155
  152. ^ Expanding Microcredit in India: A Great Opportunity for Poverty Alleviation, Grameen Dialogue.
  153. ^ Rothbard, p 167
  154. ^ Karl Marx (1863): Theories of Surplus Value, Chapter 10:

    Carey (the passage to be looked up later) therefore denounces him as the father of communism.

    “Mr. Ricardo’s system is one of discords ...its whole tends to the production of hostility among classes and nations... His hook is the true manual of the demagogue, who seeks power by means of agrarianism, war, and plunder.” (H. C. Carey, The Past, the Present, and the Future, Philadelphia, 1848, pp. 74–75.)

  155. ^ Rothbard, p 102
  156. ^ Rothbard, p 100-101
  157. ^ Harry Markowitz, "the father of Modern Portfolio Theory," To Highlight Investment Consultants Conference
  158. ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007), "Book Review—The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History", The Historian 69 (3): 601–602
  159. ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. Universe, p. 155.
  160. ^ MLA style: "Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408>. APA style: Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam. (2007).
  161. ^ "Ellen S. Richards." Vassar College Encyclopedia. 2005. 20 Nov. 2011 <http://vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu/alumni/ellen-swallow-richards.html>.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field&oldid=478871412"
Personal tools
Namespaces

Variants
Actions
Navigation
Interaction
Toolbox
Print/export
Languages