Gelao language

Gelao
Kláo
Spoken in	Western Guizhou, Wenshan Prefecture in Yunnan, Longlin County in Guangxi, China; Hà Giang Province, northern Vietnam
Native speakers	7,900  (2008)
Language family	Tai–Kadai Kra Ge–Chi Gelao
Dialects	A'ou Mulao Qao
Language codes
ISO 639-3	gio

Gelao (autonym: Kláo, Chinese: 仡佬 Gēlǎo, Vietnamese: Cờ Lao) is a dialect cluster of Kra languages in the Tai–Kadai language family. It is spoken by the Gelao people in southern China and northern Vietnam. Despite an ethnic population of 580,000 (2000 census), however, only a few thousand still speak the language. Estimates run from 3,000 in China by Li in 1999, of which 500 are monolinguals, to 7,900 by Edmonson in 2008. Edmondson (2002) estimates the three Gelao varieties of Vietnam to have only about 350 speakers altogether.

In 2009, a book allegedly written in a native Gelao script has been found in Guizhou, China. It is not known whether this find is authentic.

External relationships

Like Buyang, another Kra language, Gelao contains many words which are likely to be Austronesian cognates. (See Austro-Tai.)

As noted by Li and Zhou, Gelao shares much vocabulary with the Hlai and Ong Be languages, suggesting contact with Pre-Hlai speakers before their migration to Hainan.

Demographics

Zhang Jimin estimated a total of over 10,000 Gelao speakers in the early 1990s, while Li Jinfang places this number at 3,000 in 1999. Jerold A. Edmondson's 2008 estimate is 7,900 speakers. This number is rapidly declining, as the Gelao are intermarrying with the neighboring Han, Buyei, and Miao. Many Gelao speakers can also speak Buyei, Zhuang, or Miao, and nearly all can speak local varieties of Chinese. Among Gelao-speaking families, most middle-age Gelao have very limited speaking abilities for Gelao, while much of the younger generation cannot even understand the most simple words and phrases.

The most endangered variety, Red Gelao of Vietnam, is spoken by only about 50 people. Many speakers have shifted to Southwestern Mandarin or Hmong. The Red Gelao people, who call themselves the va35 ntɯ31, send brides back and forth among the villages of Na Khê and Bìch Đich in Yên Minh District, Hà Giang Province, Vietnam and another village in Fanpo, Malipo County, Yunnan, China (autonym: u33 wei55) in order to ensure the continual survival of their ethnic group.

Zhou (2004) reports that there are no more than 6,000 Gelao speakers, making up only 1.2% of the total number of ethnic Gelao people. The following table, based on Zhou (2004:150-151), shows the number of Gelao speakers in each county as of the 1990's. All counties are in Guizhou province unless specified otherwise.

Demographics of Gelao speakers

County	Ethnic Gelao population	Number of Gelao speakers
Renhuai City	4,347	Very few elderly speakers remaining
Zunyi County	2,922	Few speakers in Pingzheng Township 平正乡
Jinsha County	1,584	Few elderly speakers in Hongzi Township 红梓乡
Dafang County	4,000+	50+ speakers in Pudi Township 普底乡
Qianxi County	7,000+	50+ speakers in Shajing Township 沙井乡
Zhijin County	6,250	Only a few elderly speakers
Puding County	3,770	300
Anshun City	2,559	300
Pingba County	2,311	500
Qingzhen City	3,679	Only a few elderly speakers
Guanling Buyei and Miao Autonomous County	6,405	500
Zhenning Buyei and Miao Autonomous County	1,555	300
Qinglong County	501	300
Zhenfeng County	1,024	300
Shuicheng County	1,862	Only a few elderly speakers
Liuzhi Special District	8,218	1,000+
Longlin Various Nationalities Autonomous County, Guangxi	-	200+
Malipo County, Yunnan	-	100+

The Gelao people in the following counties do not speak any form of the Gelao language whatsoever, and have shifted entirely to Southwestern Mandarin.

Ethnic Gelao without knowledge of the Gelao language

County	Ethnic Gelao population
Wuchuan Gelao and Miao Autonomous County	145,989
Daozhen Gelao and Miao Autonomous County	112,025
Zheng'an County	31,706
Fenggang County	5,982
Yuqing County	4,347
Zunyi City	2,158
Shiqian County	97,500
Songtao County	-
Sinan County	-
Funing County, Yunnan	60

Varieties

Gelao is not well documented, having only been studied by a few scholars such as Li Jinfang, Jerold A. Edmondson, Weera Ostapirat, and Zhang Jimin. The three varieties in Vietnam are not mutually intelligible, and three varieties in China may be distinct languages as well. Ethnologue classifies Gelao as four languages, perhaps as closely related to the two Lachi languages as they are to each other.

Ostapirat (2000)

Ostapirat (2000) proposed three major subdivisions for Gelao, with a total of 17 varieties. The Central and Southwestern branches shares various phonological innovations, suggesting an initial split with the Northern branch.

Central (Gao)

• Wanzi 弯子寨, Anshun 安顺, Guizhou (also spoken in Heizhai 黑寨)
• Dagouchang 大狗场, Pingba 平坝, Guizhou
• Xinzhai 新寨, Baiyan 白岩乡, Puding 普定, Guizhou (also spoken in Wozi 窝子)

Northern (Red Gelao)

• Qiaoshang 桥上, Xiongjiazhai 熊家寨乡, Longchang 龙场区, Renhuai 仁怀, Guizhou
• Bigong 比贡, Zhenning 镇宁, Guizhou
• Longli 龙里, Majiang 麻江, Guizhou (Zhang calls this dialect Mulao 木佬.)
• Longjia 龙家寨, Zhijin 织金, Guizhou

Southwestern (White and Green Gelao)

• Laozhai 老寨, Malipo 麻栗坡, Yunnan (related dialect spoken in Yueliangwan 月亮弯)
• Ban Ma Che, Đồng Văn, Hà Giang, Vietnam
• Moji 摩/磨基, Longlin 隆林, Guangxi (near Dashuijing 大水井; < 400 speakers)
• Niupo 牛坡, Liuzhi 六枝, Guizhou (most populous; also spoken in Machang 马场镇 of Puding 普定县 and Agong 阿弓镇 of Zhijin 织金县; Judu 居都, Yanjiao 岩脚, Houzitian 猴子田, Langjiaba 郞家坝, and Duojiao 堕脚 of Liuzhi 六枝)
• Datiezhai 打铁寨, Shuicheng 水城, Guizhou (also spoken in Gaoshi 高石 and Miluo 米箩)
• Dingyinshao 定银哨, Zhenning 镇宁, Guizhou
• Pudi 普底, Dafang 大方, Guizhou (also spoken in Hongfeng 红丰村)
• Jianshan 尖山, Zunyi 遵义, Guizhou (also spoken in Pingzheng 平正, Zunyi along with Red and Green Gelao; < 500 speakers)
• Qinglong 青龙, Zunyi 遵义, Guizhou
• Sanchong 三冲村, Longlin 隆林, Guangxi (grouped as Central by Shen Yumay and Jerold A. Edmondson)

Edmondson (2008)

The following list of varieties is from Jerold A. Edmondson.

• Southwestern (White and Green Gelao)
  • Laozhai (老寨), Malipo (麻栗坡县), Yunnan
  • Moji (磨基), Longlin (隆林县), Guangxi
  • White Gelao of Hà Giang Province: Đồng Vǎn, Hoàng Su Phì, Quản Bạ, and Mèo Vạc districts
  • Red Gelao of Fanpo (翻坡), Malipo (麻栗坡县), Yunnan
• Central (Gao)
  • Wanzi (弯子寨) near Anshun (安顺), Guizhou
  • Sanchong (三冲村), Longlin (隆林县), Guangxi
  • Green Gelao of Hoàng Su Phì, Vietnam
• Northern (Red Gelao) (or Western)
  • Bigong (比贡), northern Guizhou
  • Qiaoshang (桥上) of Zhijin (织金), western Guizhou

Moseley (2007)

The Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages groups Gelao into five subdivisions.

• Hakhi (哈给 Hagei, ha53 kei33, Green Gelao): west-central Guizhou, western Guangxi, southeastern Yunnan, northern Vietnam - including Yangliu (杨柳) variety in Renhuai County; southwestern Gelao of Sanchong (三冲) and Qinglong (青龙). Hagei varieties are also spoken in Ma'ao (麻凹村), Guanling County (关岭县), Pomao (坡帽) in Zhenfeng County (贞丰县), and Pingzheng Gelao Village (平正仡佬族乡), Zunyi (遵义). Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 1,700 speakers. He (1983) also listed Anliang 安良 and Taiyang 太阳 of Renhuai 仁怀县, Huajiangzhen 花江镇 and Ma'ao 麻垇 of Zhenning 镇宁县, Dingying 顶营 of Guanling 关岭县, Maixiang 麦巷 near Qingzhen 清镇, and Liangshuiying 凉水营 of Qinglong 晴隆县 as Hagei-speaking places.
• Tolo (多罗 Duoluo, to31 ʔlo55, White Gelao): west-central Guizhou, western Guangxi, southeastern Yunnan, northern Vietnam; all other southwestern Gelao varieties. The Niupo variety is also spoken in Machang village (马场镇), Puding County (普定县), Anshun, as well as Agong village (阿弓镇), Zhijin County (织金县), Bijie. The Datiezhai variety is spoken in Gaoshi (高石) of Shuicheng (水城) and Miluo (米箩) of Shuicheng (水城). Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 1,200 speakers.
• A-uo (阿欧 A'ou/Ao, Red Gelao): west-central Guizhou, western Guangxi, southeastern Yunnan, northern Vietnam - including Banli (板栗湾) variety in Renhuai County; all northern Gelao varieties, as well as southwestern Gelao of Puding County (普定县) and Maocaozhai (茅草寨), Zhijin County (织金县). Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 1,500 speakers. He (1983) also listed Shawo 沙窝, Xinkaitian 新开田, Lannigou 滥泥沟 (all in Qianxi 黔西县) as A'ou-speaking places.
• Aqao (稿 Gao): west-central Guizhou; all central Gelao varieties. Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 2,000 speakers. He (1983) also listed Dongkou 洞口 of Shuicheng 水城县 and Niudong 牛洞 of Zhijin 织金县 as Gao-speaking places.
• Qaw: Gulin County (古蔺县), Sichuan; mostly unattested. This dialect is spoken by the Yi (羿人), who are the least-known Gelao subgroup.

The most extensively studied varieties are the Wanzi and Zhenfeng dialects, while the most endangered one is Red Gelao. Like Buyang, White Gelao also appears to have more Austronesian cognates than the other varieties.

Phonology

Gelao has many uvular and prenasalized consonants. Many varieties also preserve consonant clusters that have been lost in most other related languages. These consonant clusters, such as pl, bl, phl, ml, mpl, vl, and kl, correspond regularly with consonants in Lachi, Mulao, Qabiao (Pubiao), Buyang, and various Kam–Tai languages. Gelao also shares many phonological features with the Buyei language.

Many Gelao varieties have a total of 6 tones, including 2 level (33 and 55), 2 rising (13 and 35), and 2 falling tones (31 and 53).

Sound correspondences between the Liuzhi (六枝) and Zhenfeng (贞丰) varieties include:

[Liuzhi : Zhenfeng]

• pl : pj
• plh : p
• ml : m
• mp : m
• ntɕ : ɲ/nʲ
• ŋk : ŋ/k

Grammar

Like all of its surrounding languages, Gelao is a head-first, SVO language. Like Buyang, one unusual feature of Gelao is that negatives usually come at the end of a sentence. Reduplication is very common and is used for dimunitive or repetitive purposes. Other common features include the use of serial verb constructions and compound nouns. Although numerals and classifiers precede nouns, adjectives (including demonstratives) always follow the noun. Function words, such as prepositions and auxiliary words, are often derived from verbs.

Like Buyang and Dong, Gelao retains many prefixes that have been lost in most other Tai–Kadai languages. Zhang (1993:300) notes that the Moji (磨基) Longlin variant makes especially extensive use of prefixing syllables before nouns, verbs, and adjectives. These prefixes are especially important for reconstruction purposes.

Many words in Gelao are derived from vernacular Southwest Mandarin Chinese. These loanwords are often used interchangeably with native Gelao words. There is also a highly rich system of classifiers.

Gelao also has a rich set of pronouns not attested in other Tai–Kadai languages. There are also pronouns referring to one's household in particular. The following are pronouns from Pingba Gelao.

• (su33) i42 - I
• (su33) mu21 - you
• (su33) u42 - he, she, it
• (su33) ta33 - we
• (su33) sa33 - you all
• pə42 nu42 - they
• qa33/a33 qei42 - my household
• qa33/a33 mu21 - your household
• qa33/a55 qu42 - his/her household

Pingba Gelao numerals are given below. Note the similarities with the Austronesian numeral system.

1. si33
2. su33
3. ta33
4. pu33
5. mpu33
6. naŋ33
7. ɕi13
8. zua55
9. sə13
10. pan13

Further reading

• 张済民/Zhang, Jimin. 仡佬语研究/Gelao yu yan jiu (A Study of Gelao). 贵阳市/Guiyang, China: 贵州民族出版社/Guizhou min zu chu ban she, 1993.
• 贺嘉善/He, Jiashan. 仡佬语简志/Gelao yu jian zhi (A Sketch of Gelao). Beijing, China: 民族出版社/Min zu chu ban she: 新華書店发行/Xin hua shu dian fa xing, 1983.
• Ryūichi Kosaka, Guoyan Zhou, Jinfang Li. 仡央语言词汇集/Geyang yu yan ci hui ji. 贵阳市/Guiyang, China: 贵州民族出版社/Guizhou min zu chu ban she, 1998.
• 李锦芳/Li, Jinfang and 周国炎/Guoyan Zhou. 仡央语言探索/Geyang yu yan tan suo. Beijing, China: 中央民族大学出版社/Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she, 1999.
• 周国炎 / Zhou Guoyan. 仡佬族母語生态硏究 / Gelao zu mu yu sheng tai yan jiu [Studies on the linguistic ecology of the Gelao people]. Beijing: 民族出版社 / Min zu chu ban she, 2004.
• Ostapirat, Weera (2000). "Proto-Kra". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23 (1): 1-251
• Shen Yumay. 2003. Phonology of Sanchong Gelao. M.A. Thesis, University of Texas at Arlington.
• Edmondson, J. A., & Solnit, D. B. (1988). Comparative Kadai: linguistic studies beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, no. 86. [Arlington, Tex.]: Summer Institute of Linguistics. ISBN 0-88312-066-6
• Diller, Anthony, Jerold A. Edmondson, and Yongxian Luo ed. The Tai–Kadai Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. Psychology Press, 2008.

External links

• Gelao-language Swadesh vocabulary list of basic words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
• Gelao language at Ethnologue (16th ed., 2009)
• Entry for Gelao at Rosetta Project
• Recordings of various minority languages of northern Vietnam
• Bible recordings in Huangniu （黄扭） Longlin Gelao (also known as Sanchong Gelao, Hagei, Green Gelao)
• ztgl.net

Word lists

• ABVD: Gelao (Niupo) word list
• ABVD: Gelao (Judu) word list
• ABVD: Gelao (Hongfeng) word list
• ABVD: Gelao (Zhenfeng) word list
• ABVD: Gelao (Wanzi) word list
• ABVD: Gelao (Sanchong) word list