General sejm

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The First Sejm (held at Łęczyca), by Matejko

The general sejm[1] (Polish: Sejm walny, also translated as the full[2] or ordinary[3]) was the parliament of Poland for four centuries from the 15th until the late 18th century. It has evolved from the earlier institution of wiec. It was one of the primary elements of the democratic governance in the Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

It is estimated that between 1493 and 1793 sejms were held 240 times.[4] Jędruch gives a higher number of 245, and notes that 192 of those were successfully completed, passing legislation.[5] 32 sejms were vetoed with the infamous liberum veto, particularly in the first half of the 18th century.[5]

Contents

[edit] Etymology

The word sejm and sejmik are derived from old Czech sejmovat, which means "to bring together" or "to summon".[6]

[edit] Genesis

A wiec in the reign of King Kazimierz the Great (14th-century Poland)

There is no obvious date for the first sejm. Popular participation in public policy making in Poland can be traced to the institution known as the wiec.[7] Another form of democratic decision making was that of royal election, which occurred when there was no clear heir to the throne, or confirming the heir's appointment.[8] There are legends of a 9th-century election of the legendary founder of the Piast dynasty, Piast the Wheelwright, and a similar election of his son, Siemowit (this would place a Polish ruler's election a century before an Icelandic one's by the Althing), but sources for that time are very sparse, and it is hard to estimate to whether those elections were more than a formality.[9][10] The election privilege was usually limited to the most powerful nobles (magnates) or officials, and was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler. [8]By the 12th or 13th centuries, the wiec institution likewise limited its participation to high ranking nobles and officials.[11] The nation-wide wiec's gathering officials in 1306 and 1310 can be seen as a precursor of the general sejm.[11]

The traditions of local wiec's or sejmiks survived the period of Poland's fragmentation (1146–1295), and continuted in the restored Kingdom of Poland.[12][13] Sejmiks date to the late 14th century when they arose from gatherings of nobility, formed for military and consultative purposes[6] Sejmiks were legally recognized by the 1454 Nieszawa Statutes, in a privilege granted to the szlachta (Polish nobility) by King Casimir IV Jagiellon, when the king agreed to consult certain decisions with the nobility.[6][14][15] Such local gatherings were preferred by the kings, as the national assemblies would try to claim more power than the regional ones. [12][16] Nonetheless, with time, the power of such assemblies grew, entrenched with milestone privileges occurring particularly during a period of transition from one dynasty to another (such as the Privilege of Koszyce of 1374).[16]

According to some older historians like Zygmunt Gloger or Tadeusz Czacki,[17][18][19] the first sejm took place in 1180, the date of the gathering of notables (zjazd, translated as an assembly[20], congress[21] or synod[22]) at Łęczyca, shown on a painting of Jan Matejko entitled "The First Sejm".[23] More modern works, however, do not refer to the Łęczyca gathering as a sejm and instead focus on the more regular national gatherings that became know as sejm walny or wielki date to 15th century.[12][24] Whereas Bardach in discussing the beginning of the sejm walny points to the national assemblies of the early 15th century, Jędruch prefers, as "a convenient time marker", the sejm of 1493, the first recorded bicameral session of the Polish parliament (although as noted by Sedlar, 1493 is simply the first time such a session was clearly recorded in sources, and the first bicameral session might have taken place earlier).[12][16][24][25]

The Polish-Lithuanian union also spread the institution of a Sejm to Lithuania. After a period in which Lithuanian delegations participated in the sejm, the first sejm in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania took place in Wilno (Vilnius) in 1528.[26]

[edit] Duration and frequency

The first Polish royal election, of Henryk Walezy in 1573. Painting by Jan Matejko.

In the mid-15th century the general sejm met about once per year.[12] There was no set time span to elapse between a new sessions was to be called by the king.[25] If the general sejm did not happen, the local sejmiks would debate on issues instead.[12] King Henry's Articles, signed by each king since 1573, required the king to call a general sejm (lasting six weeks) every two years, and provisions for the extraordinary sejm (Polish: sejm ekstraordynaryjny, nadzwyczajny) that was to last two weeks were also set down in this act.[5][27] Extraordinary sejms could be called in times of national emergency, for example, a sejm deciding whether to call pospolite ruszenie in response to an invasion. The sejm could be extended, if all the deputies were to agree.[27]

No set time of a year was defined, but costomarily, the Sejms were called a time that would not interfere with the supervision of agriculture, which formed the livelihood of most nobility; thus most sejms took place in late fall or learly winter.[5]

After the Constitution of the 3 May, 1791, sejms were to be held every two years, and last 70 days, with a provision for extension to a 100.[28] Provisions for extraordinary sejms were made, as well as for a special constitutional sejm, which was to meet and discuss whether any revisions of the constitution are needed (that one was to meet every 25 years).[28]

[edit] Political influence

Sejms (together with the Senate and the sejmiks) severely limited the king's powers. The king could not pass the laws himself without the approval of the Sejm, this being forbidden by szlachta privileges like nihil novi from 1505.[29] According to the nihil novi constitution a law passed by the Sejm had to be agreed by the three estates (the king, the Senate and deputies from the Sejm).[29] There were only few areas in which the king could pass legislation without consulting the Sejm: on royal cities, peasants in the royal lands, Jews, fiefs and on mining.[29] They had the final decision in legislation on taxation, budget, and treasury matters (including military funding), foreign affairs (including hearing foreign envoys and sending diplomatic missions) and ennoblement.[12][29] The sejm received fiscal reports from Deputy Treasurers, and debated on most important court cases (the Sejm court), with the right of amnesty.[29] Sejm could also legislate in the absence of the king, although such legislation would have to be accepted by the king ex post.[12]

Following the Constitution of 3 May, Senate's competences were limited; in most cases it could only vote together with the Sejm, and its veto powers were limited.[28] Legislative power was limited to the deputies of the Sejm (not Senators), and the king could propose new laws only together with the government (the Guardianship of Laws, which included the current Marshal of the Sejm).[28] Sejm also had the supervisory role, as government ministers and other officials were to be responsible to it.[28]

[edit] Proceedings

Sejm session at the Royal Castle, Warsaw, 1622

A Sejm began a solemn mass, a verification of deputies mandates, and election of the Marshal of the Sejm (also known as Speaker).[30][31] (The position of Marshal of the Sejm (and sejmik) who presided over the proceedings and would be elected from the body of deputies evolved in the 17th century.[12]) Next, Kanclerz (Chancellor) declared the King's intentions to both chambers, who would then debate separately till the ending ceremonies.[31]

After 1543 the resolutions were written in Polish rather than Latin.[32] All legislation adopted by a given Sejm formed a whole and was published as a "constitution" of the Sejm, e.g. the "constitution" of 1667. From the end of the 16th century, the constitutions were printed, stamped with the royal seal, and sent to the chancelleries of the municipal councils of all voivodships of the Crown and also to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[33][34] Such constitutions were often subjects to some final tweaking by the royal court before being printed, although that could lead to protests among the nobility.[33]

[edit] Voting

Until the end of the 16th century, unanimity was not required and majority voting predominated.[5][33] Later, with the rise of the magnates' power, the unanimity principle was reinforced with the szlachta privilege of liberum veto (from the Latin: "I freely forbid").[35] From second half of 17th century the liberum veto was used to paralyze the Sejm and brought the Commonwealth to the brink of collapse.[33][36] The growing power of sejmiks also contributed to the inefficiency of the sejm, as binding instructions from sejmiks could prevent some deputies from being able to support certain provisions.[33][37] The pro-majority-voting party almost disappeared in the 17th century, and majority voting was preserved only at confederated sejms (sejm rokoszowy, konny, konfederacyjny).[5] The liberum veto was finally abolished by the Constitution of 3rd May in 1791.[38]

Reforms of 1764-1766 improved the proceedings of the Sejm.[39] They introduced majority voting for items declared as "non crucial" (most economic and tax matters) amd outlawed binding instructions from sejmiks.[39] Reforms of 1767 and 1773-1775 transferred some competences of Sejm to the commissions of elected delegates.[39] From 1768, hetmans were included among the Senate members, and from 1775, so was the Court Deputy Treasurer.[39]

In the Senate there was no voting; after all the Senators who wished spoken on a given matter, the king or the chancellor formed a general opinion based on the majority.[33] Prior to the May 3 Constitution, in Poland the term "constitution" (Polish: konstytucja) had denoted all the legislation, of whatever character, that had been passed at a Sejm.[40] Only with the adoption of the May 3 Constitution did konstytucja assume its modern sense of a fundamental document of governance.[41]

Constitution of the 3 May, 1791, finally abolished the liberum veto, replacing it by a majority voting, in most important matters requiring 75% of the votess.[28]

[edit] Location

  • Old Chamber of Deputies at the Royal Castle, Warsaw, 16th century

  • New Chamber of Deputies at the Royal Castle, Warsaw, late 17th century

  • Seating arrangement in the Senate Chamber at the Royal Castle, Warsaw, during a regular Sejm; and that chamber during 1732 Convocation Sejm

  • Plan of the elective camp of Polish Kings in Wola near Warsaw

Until the Union of Lublin (1568), Sejms were held in Piotrków Trybunalski Castle, located in Piotrków, a town chosen for their proximity to two major provinces of Poland, the Great Poland and Lesser Poland.[12][42][43] From 1493, other locations would host the Sejms, most prominently, Kraków, which would held 29 sessions.[43][44] Other locations included Brest ((1653), Bydgoszcz (1520), Jędrzejów (1576), Kamień (1573), Koło (1577) Korczyn (1511), Lublin (1506, 1554, 1566, 1569), Poznań (1513), Sandomierz (1500, 1519), Toruń (1519, 1577), and Warsaw (1556, 1563, and numerous times after 1568).[44]

After the Union, majority of Sejms where held at the Warsaw's Royal Castle.[45] A few were held elsewhere, particularly in the first years of the Commonwealth (see preceding list), and from 1673, every third Sejm was to take place at Grodno in Lithuania (first hosted in the Old Hrodna Castle, later, in the New Hrodna Castle).[27] In practice, majority of Sejms were still held in Warsaw, which has hosted 148 Sejms, compared to 11 Sejms hosted in Grodno.[43]

Sejms in Kraków would be held in the Wawel Castle, within the Hall of the Deputies (Hall under the Heads) and the Senate Chamber.[43] The Sejms in Warsaw were held in the Warsaw Castle, within the Chamber of Deputies (Hall of Three Pillars), with the upper Senate Chamber located literally above it..[43] In the late 17th century, new quarters were constructed for the Chamber of Deputies, and where joined on the same level by the Senate in the mid-18th century..[43] The new Senate Chamber was the larger, as it was intended to host both chambers during opening and closing ceremonies.[43]

[edit] Composition

Election of Stanisław August Poniatowski in 1764 (detail)

Up till 1468, Sejms gathered only the high ranking nobility and officials, but the sejm of 1468 saw deputies elected from various local territories.[42] Although all nobles were allowed to participate in the general sejm, with the growing importance of local sejmiks in the 15th century, it became more common for the sejmiks to elect deputies for the general sejm.[12] In time, this shifted importance, particularly legislative competence, from local sejmiks to the general sejm.[46]

The Sejm comprised two chambers, with a varying number of deputies. After 1569 Union of Lublin, the Kingdom of Poland was transformed into the federation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Sejms number was significantly increased with the inclusion of the deputies from Lithuanian Sejmiks.[45] The deputies had no set term of office, although in practice it was about four month long, from their election at a regional sejmik, to their report on the next sejmik dedicated to hearing and discussing the sejm proceedings (those sejmiks were known as relational or debriefing).[5] Deputies had parliamentary immunity and any crimes against them were classified as lese-majesty.[5]

The two chambers were:

  • A Senat of high ecclesiastical and secular officials, forming the royal council. In the mid 15th century they numbered 73.[12] That number grew with time, with 81 senators around 1493-1504, and 95 around 1553-1565.[47] In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the Senate numbered over 140 bishops and other dignitaries;[27] growing from 149 around 1598-1633 to 153 around 1764-1768, and 157 during the era of the Great Sejm (1788-1792).[47] The Constitution of 3 May set their number at 132.[28]
  • A lower house, the Sejm proper, of lower officials and lesser nobility.[12] That number also grew with time, at first below that of the senators, with 53 deputies around 1493-1504, and 92 around 1553-1565.[47] In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the Sejm chamber exceeded that of senators.[47] After the Union of Lublin in 1569 it was composed of 170 deputies (Polish, singular: poseł, representing and elected by a local sejmik). The 170 included 48 from Lithuania.[48] Deputies from several cities and towns were allowed a status of observers.[48] The number of deputies grew to around 236 in the period 1764-1768, dropping to and 181 during the era of the Great Sejm (1788-1792).[47] The Constitution of 3 May set their number at 204, including 24 representatives from the cities and towns.[28]

The Constitution of 3 May noted that the deputies were elected for two years, and did not require reelection in that period if any extraordinary sejms were to be called.[28] Senators for the most part were selected by the king from a number of candidates presented by the sejmiks.[28]

Usually larger voivodeships could send 6 deputies, smaller 2; ziemias dependent on their sizes would sent 2 or 1.[48] Deputies elected to Sejm by sejmiks in the order of precedence, based on a 1569 decree:[49]

# Constituency Voivodeship Deputies
1 Kraków Kraków 6
2 Poznań Poznań 6
3 Oświęcim–Zator Kraków 2
4 Vilnius Vilnius 2
5 Ashmyany Vilnius 2
6 Lida Vilnius 2
7 Vilkmergė Vilnius 2
8 Braslaw Vilnius 2
9 Sandomierz Sandomierz 7
10 Kalisz Kalisz 6
11 Trakai Trakai 2
12 Hrodna Trakai 2
13 Kaunas Trakai 2
14 Upytė Trakai 2
15 Sieradz Sieradz 4
16 Wieluń Sieradz 2
17 Leczyca Łęczyca Leczyca Łęczyca 4
18 Samogitia Samogitia 2
19 Brześć Kujawski Brześć Kujawski 2
20 Dobrzyń Brześć Kujawski 2
21 Kiev Kiev 6
22 Inowrocław Inowrocław 2
23 Lviv Ruthenia 2
24 Przemyśl Ruthenia 2
25 Sanok Ruthenia 2
26 Halych Ruthenia 2
27 Chełm Ruthenia 2
28 Volhynia Volhynia 6
29 Podolia Podolia 6
30 Smolensk Smolensk 2
31 Starodub Smolensk 2
32 Lublin Lublin 3
33 Polotsk Polotsk 2
34 Belz Belz 4
35 Navahrudak Navahrudak 2
36 Slonim Navahrudak 2
37 Vawkavysk Navahrudak 2
38 Płock Płock 2
39 Vitebsk Vitebsk 2
40 Orsha Vitebsk 2
41 Czersk Masovia 2
42 Warsaw Masovia 2
43 Wizna Masovia 2
44 Wyszogród Masovia 2
45 Zakroczym Masovia 2
46 Ciechanów Masovia 2
47 Lomza Łomża Masovia 2
48 Różan Masovia 2
49 Liw Masovia 2
50 Nur Masovia 2
51 Drohiczyn Podlachia 2
52 Bielsk Podlaski Podlachia 2
53 Mielnik Podlachia 2
54 Rawa Mazowiecka Rawa Mazowiecka 2
55 Sochaczew Rawa Mazowiecka 2
56 Gostynin Rawa Mazowiecka 2
57 Brest-Litovsk Brest-Litovsk 2
58 Pinsk Brest-Litovsk 2
59 Chełmno Chełmno 2
60 Mstsislaw Mstsislaw 2
61 Malbork Malbork 2
62 Bratslav Bratslav 6
63 Gdańsk Pomerania 2
64 Minsk Minsk 2
65 Mazyr Minsk 2
66 Rechytsa Minsk 2
67 Livonia Livonia 6
68 Chernihiv Chernihiv 4

[edit] Special sessions

The Constitution of May 3, 1791, is adopted by the Four-Year Sejm at the Royal Castle, Warsaw.

In addition to the regular sessions of the general sejm, from the era of electable kings, beginning with 1573, three special sejms handled the process of the royal election in the interregnum period.[50] Those were:

  • Convocation sejm (Sejm konwokacyjny). This Sejm was called upon a death or abdication of a king by the Primate of Poland.[50] The deputies would focus on establishing the dates and any special rules for the election (in particular, preparation of pacta conventa, bills of privileges to be sworn by the king), and screening the candidates.[50] This sejm was to last two weeks.[5]
  • Election sejm (Sejm elekcyjny), during which the nobility voted for the candidate to the throne. This sejm was open to all members of the nobility who desired to attend it, and as such they often gathered much larger number of attendees than the regular sejms.[50][51] The exact numbers of attendees have never been recorded, and are estimated to vary from 10,000 to over 100,000; subsequently the voting could last days (in 1573 it was recorded that it took four days).[52] To handle the increased numbers, those Sejms would be held in Wola, then a village nearby Warsaw.[50] Royal candidates themselves would be barred from attending this sejm, but were allowed to sent representatives.[52] This sejm was to last six weeks.[5]
  • Coronation sejm (Sejm koronacyjny). This sejm was held in Kraków, where the coronation ceremony was traditionally held by the Primate, who relinquished his powers to the chosen king.[53] This sejm was to last two weeks.[5]

Confederated sejm (Sejm skonfederowany) first appeared in 1573 (all convocation and election sejms were confederated), and became more popular in the 18th century as a counter to the disruption of liberum veto.[54] Seen as emergency or extraordinary sessions, they relied on a majority voting to speed up the discussions, and ensure their conclusion.[5][54] Many royal election sejms were confederated, as well as some of the normal sejm walny sessions.[50][54]

Jędruch, who classifies the regular general sejm session as ordinary, in addition to the convocation, election and coronation sessions, also distinguished the following types can be distinguished:

  • council of state;
  • constitutional;
  • delegation (ending with a formation of committees);
  • extraordianry;
  • general council (rada walna) without the king present. That sejm would be convoked by the Primate when the king could not attend and had no legislative powers. It would be attended by deputies from the preceeding Sejm. Held three times (in in 1576, 1710 and 1734);
  • general sejmik held instead of a sejm;
  • inquest, debating the case of royal impeachment. Two such sejms were held (in 1592 and 1646);
  • pacification, to quell a potential civil war after a disputed election, to pacify the opponents through political concessions. Five such sejms were held (in 1598, 1673, 1698, 1699 and 1735).[3][5]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Władysław Czapliński (1985). The Polish Parliament at the summit of its development (16-17th centuries): anthologies. Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. p. 13. ISBN 978-83-04-01861-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=EXlKAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 7 March 2012. 
  2. ^ Norman Davies (30 March 2005). God's Playground: The origins to 1795. Columbia University Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-231-12817-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=07vm4vmWPqsC&pg=PA253. Retrieved 7 March 2012. 
  3. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 426. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  4. ^ Przegląd humanistyczny. Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe.. 2002. p. 24. http://books.google.com/books?id=GP5AAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 125-132. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  6. ^ a b c Norman Davies (2005). God's playground: a history of Poland in two volumes. Oxford University Press. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA247. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  7. ^ Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.20, 26-27
  8. ^ a b Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.62-63
  9. ^ Norman Davies (23 August 2001). Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present. Oxford University Press. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-19-280126-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=lMQei5CPZUgC&pg=PA249. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  10. ^ Janusz Roszko (1980). Kolebka Siemowita. "Iskry". p. 170. ISBN 978-83-207-0090-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=4tNBAAAAYAAJ. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  11. ^ a b Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.63-64
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.104-106
  13. ^ Jerzy Jan Lerski (1996). Historical dictionary of Poland, 966-1945. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 532. ISBN 978-0-313-26007-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=QTUTqE2difgC&pg=PA532. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  14. ^ Daniel Stone (2001). The Polish-Lithuanian state, 1386-1795. University of Washington Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-295-98093-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA77. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  15. ^ Thomas Ertman (13 January 1997). Birth of the leviathan: building states and regimes in medieval and early modern Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-521-48427-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=dQ53vjKiwR0C&pg=PA294. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  16. ^ a b c Jean W. Sedlar (April 1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500. University of Washington Press. pp. 291–293. ISBN 978-0-295-97291-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3o5lrvuwOVwC&pg=PA291. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  17. ^ Zygmunt Gloger (1896). Słownik rzeczy starozytnych. Gebethner. p. 386. http://books.google.com/books?id=RvFDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA386. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  18. ^ Samuel Orgelbrand (1866). Encyklopedyja powszechna. Orgelbrand. p. 193. http://books.google.com/books?id=x2tCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA193. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  19. ^ Tadeusz Czacki; Kazimierz Józef Turowski (1861). O litewskich i polskich prawach, o ich duchu, źródlach, zwiazku, i o rzeczach zawartych w pierwszym Statucie dla Litwy, 1529 roku wydanym. Nakladem drukarni 'Czasu,'. p. 294. http://books.google.com/books?id=3AAwAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA294. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
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  21. ^ F. W. Carter (20 April 2006). Trade And Urban Development in Poland: An Economic Geography of Cracow, from Its Origins to 1795. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-521-02438-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QA5jmNtYc74C&pg=PA50. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  22. ^ HALINA LERSKI (30 January 1996). Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945. ABC-CLIO. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-313-03456-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=luRry4Y5NIYC&pg=PA249. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  23. ^ Galeria Sztuki Polskiej (Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie) (1962). Malarstwo polskie od XVI do początku XX wieku: katalog. Muzeum. p. 103. http://books.google.com/books?id=PPzVAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 
  24. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 173–174. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  25. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 51. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  26. ^ Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 49. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  27. ^ a b c d Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.219-220
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.310-312
  29. ^ a b c d e Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.221-222
  30. ^ Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 52. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  31. ^ a b Karol Rawer (1899). Dzieje ojczyste dla mlodziezy. p. 86. http://books.google.com/books?id=cOdLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA86. Retrieved 7 March 2012. 
  32. ^ Adam Zamoyski (15 April 2009). Poland: a history. Harper Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-00-728275-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=EEU_AQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  33. ^ a b c d e f Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.220-221
  34. ^ Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 54-55. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  35. ^ (English) David J. Sturdy (2002). Fractured Europe, 1600–1721. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 236. ISBN 06-31205-13-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y8_mapl_JS0C&printsec=frontcover&hl=pl. 
  36. ^ Barbara Markiewicz, "Liberum veto albo o granicach społeczeństwa obywatelskiego" [w:] Obywatel: odrodzenie pojęcia, Warszawa 1993.
  37. ^ Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.223
  38. ^ George Sanford (2002). Democratic government in Poland: constitutional politics since 1989. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 11–12. ISBN 9780333774755. http://books.google.com/books?id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&pg=PA11. Retrieved 5 July 2011. 
  39. ^ a b c d Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.293-294
  40. ^ "Konstytucja: Sejm laws passed by common consent. They had various characters: that of today's laws, and that of administrative acts. They pertained to national, local and special matters. They appeared with the date of the opening of the [Sejm] session.... They were published in the name of the monarch, were written in the Polish language, and with time appeared in print. Tax laws were published separately. A collection of constitutions was published in the 18th century by Stanisław Konarski under the title, Volumina legum [Volumes of Laws – the first collection of laws in Poland: Encyklopedia Polski, p. 301]." Encyklopedia Polski, pp. 306–7.
  41. ^ This is implicit in the May 3rd Constitution's recognition as the world's second written national constitution, after the United States Constitution, in many sources, including Encyklopedia Polski (p. 307) and Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN, vol. 2, Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1974, p. 543.
  42. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 50. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  43. ^ a b c d e f g Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 90–100. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  44. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 427-431. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  45. ^ a b (English) Paul R. Magocsi (1996). A history of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press. p. 142. ISBN 08-02078-20-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=t124cP06gg0C&printsec=frontcover&hl=pl. 
  46. ^ Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.217-219
  47. ^ a b c d e Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 57. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  48. ^ a b c Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.219
  49. ^ (Polish) Koneczny, Feliks (1924). Dzieje administracji w Polsce w zarysie. Vilnius: Okręgowa Szkoła Policji Państwowej Ziemi Wileńskiej. ISBN 83-87809-20-9. http://www.nonpossumus.pl/biblioteka/feliks_koneczny/adm/III_2.php. 
  50. ^ a b c d e f Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 74. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  51. ^ Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 71. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  52. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 76-77. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  53. ^ Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 78-79. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  54. ^ a b c Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.226
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See also: Sejmik · General (walny) sejm · Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw · Sejm of the Congress Poland
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