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[[File:C5 plum pox resistant plum.jpg|thumb|[[Plum]]s genetically engineered for resistance to [[plum pox]], a disease carried by [[aphid]]s.]]
[[File:C5 plum pox resistant plum.jpg|thumb|[[Plum]]s genetically engineered for resistance to [[plum pox]], a disease carried by [[aphid]]s, and blue bunnies wearing mustaches.]]


'''Genetically modified foods''' ('''GM foods''', or '''biotech foods''') are foods derived from [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMOs), specifically, [[genetically modified crops]]. GMOs have had specific changes introduced into their DNA by [[genetic engineering]] techniques. These techniques are much more precise<ref>[http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf GM Science Review First Report], Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9</ref> than [[mutagenesis]] (mutation breeding) where an organism is exposed to radiation or chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change. Other techniques by which humans modify food organisms include selective breeding; plant breeding, and animal breeding, and [[somaclonal variation]].
'''Genetically modified foods''' ('''GM foods''', or '''biotech foods''') are foods derived from [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMOs), specifically, [[genetically modified crops]]. GMOs have had specific changes introduced into their DNA by [[genetic engineering]] techniques. These techniques are much more precise<ref>[http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf GM Science Review First Report], Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9</ref> than [[mutagenesis]] (mutation breeding) where an organism is exposed to radiation or chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change. Other techniques by which humans modify food organisms include selective breeding; plant breeding, and animal breeding, and human breeding[[somaclonal variation]].


Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its [[Flavr Savr]] delayed ripening tomato.<ref name="James 1996">{{cite web|last=James|first=Clive|title=Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995|url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf|publisher=The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications|accessdate=17 July 2010|year=1996}}</ref> Typically, genetically modified foods are [[transgenic plant]] products: [[Transgenic soybean|soybean]], [[Transgenic maize|corn]], [[canola]], [[Genetically modified rice|rice]], and [[cotton seed oil]]. These may have been engineered for faster growth, resistance to pathogens, production of extra nutrients, or any other beneficial purpose. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed, although as of July 2010 none are currently on the market.<ref>http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm113672.htm</ref>
Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its [[Flavr Savr]] delayed ripening tomato.<ref name="James 1996">{{cite web|last=James|first=Clive|title=Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995|url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf|publisher=The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications|accessdate=17 July 2010|year=1996}}</ref> Typically, genetically modified foods are [[transgenic plant]] products: [[Transgenic soybean|soybean]], [[Transgenic maize|corn]], [[canola]], [[Genetically modified rice|rice]], and [[cotton seed oil]]. These may have been engineered for faster growth, resistance to pathogens, production of extra nutrients, or any other beneficial purpose. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed, although as of July 2010 none are currently on the market.<ref>http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm113672.htm</ref>

Revision as of 17:06, 19 December 2012

Plums genetically engineered for resistance to plum pox, a disease carried by aphids, and blue bunnies wearing mustaches.

Genetically modified foods (GM foods, or biotech foods) are foods derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs), specifically, genetically modified crops. GMOs have had specific changes introduced into their DNA by genetic engineering techniques. These techniques are much more precise[1] than mutagenesis (mutation breeding) where an organism is exposed to radiation or chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change. Other techniques by which humans modify food organisms include selective breeding; plant breeding, and animal breeding, and human breedingsomaclonal variation.

Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato.[2] Typically, genetically modified foods are transgenic plant products: soybean, corn, canola, rice, and cotton seed oil. These may have been engineered for faster growth, resistance to pathogens, production of extra nutrients, or any other beneficial purpose. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed, although as of July 2010 none are currently on the market.[3]

Critics have objected to GM foods on several grounds, including safety issues,[4] ecological concerns, and economic concerns raised by the fact GM plants (and potentially animals) that are food sources are subject to intellectual property law.

This article covers GM food, per se. There are separate articles on other aspects of genetic engineering. The genetic engineering article focuses on history and methods of genetic engineering, and on applications of genetic engineering and of GMOs. The article on GMOs focuses on what organisms have been genetically engineered and for what purposes. The two articles cover much of the same ground but with different organizations (sorted by application in the genetic engineering article; sorted by organism in the GMO article). There are separate articles on genetically modified crops (which have more to do with agriculture than food), regulation, and controversies.

Method of production

Main articles: Genetic Engineering and Genetically modified organism
Comparison of conventional plant breeding with transgenic and cisgenic genetic modification.

The two primary methods of producing genetically modified plants from which food is derived, are transgenesis and cisgenesis. Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species, whereas Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same level of legal regulation as other genetically modified organisms.[5]

Genetically engineered plants are generated in a laboratory by altering their genetic makeup and are tested in the laboratory for desired qualities. This is usually done by adding one or more genes to a plant's genome using genetic engineering techniques. Most genetically modified plants are generated by the biolistic method (particle gun) or by Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation. Once satisfactory plants are produced, sufficient seeds are gathered, and the companies producing the seed need to apply for regulatory approval to field-test the seeds. If these field tests are successful, the company must seek regulatory approval for the crop to be marketed (see Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms). Once that approval is obtained, the seeds are mass produced, and sold to farmers. The farmers produce genetically modified crops, which also contain the inserted gene and its protein product. The farmers then sell their crops as commodities into the food supply market, in countries where such sales are permitted.

History

Scientists first discovered that DNA can transfer between organisms in 1946.[6] The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1983, using an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. In 1994, the transgenic Flavr Savr tomato was approved by the FDA for marketing in the US - the modification allowed the tomato to delay ripening after picking.[2] In the US in 1995, the following transgenic crops received marketing approval: canola with modified oil composition (Calgene), Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn/maize (Ciba-Geigy), cotton resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil (Calgene), Bt cotton (Monsanto), Bt potatoes (Monsanto), soybeans resistant to the herbicide glyphosate (Monsanto), virus-resistant squash (Asgrow), and additional delayed ripening tomatoes (DNAP, Zeneca/Peto, and Monsanto).[2] In 2000, with the production of golden rice, scientists genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time. As of 2011, the U.S. leads a list of multiple countries in the production of GM crops, and 25 GM crops had received regulatory approval to be grown commercially.[7]

Golden rice (right) compared to white rice (left). Golden rice contains beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, and was the first genetically modified crop in which an entire biosynthetic pathway was engineered.

Foods made from GM crops

Currently, there are several GM crops that are food sources. As of September 2012 there were no genetically modified animals approved for use as food, but a genetically modified salmon was near FDA approval at that time.[8]

In some cases, the product is directly consumed as food, but In most cases, crops that have been genetically modified are sold as commodities, which are further processed into food ingredients.

Fruits and vegetables

Papaya has been genetically modified to resist the ringspot virus. The New York Times stated that "in the early 1990s, Hawaii’s papaya industry was facing disaster because of the deadly papaya ringspot virus. Its single-handed savior was a breed engineered to be resistant to the virus. Without it, the state’s papaya industry would have collapsed. Today, 80% of Hawaiian papaya is genetically engineered, and there is still no conventional or organic method to control ringspot virus."[9]

The New Leaf potato, brought to market by Monsanto in the late 1990s, was developed for the fast food market, but was withdrawn from the market in 2001[10] after fast food retailers did not pick it up and food processors ran into export problems.[11] There are currently no transgenic potatoes marketed for human consumption.[11] However, in October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA for its Fortuna potato, which was made resistant to late blight by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum.[12][13]

As of 2005, about 13% of the zucchini grown in the US was genetically modified to resist three viruses; the zucchini is also grown in Canada.[14]

Vegetable oil

Most vegetable oil used in the US is produced from GM crops.[15] Vegetable oil is sold directly to consumers as cooking oil, margarine, and shortening, and is used in prepared foods.

There is no, or a vanishingly small amount of, protein or DNA remaining in vegetable oil from the original GM crop.[16] Vegetable oil is made of triglycerides extracted from plants or seeds and then refined, and may be further processed via hydrogenation to turn liquid oils into solids. The refining process[17] removes all, or nearly all non-triglyceride ingredients.[18]

Cooking oil, margarine, and shortening

Cooking oil, margarine, and shortening found in grocery stores may be made from several crops, among them, the GM crops canola, corn, or soybeans.[19]

Canola, of which 93% of the US crop is GM, is mainly used to produce vegetable oil. The genetic modifications are for resistance to herbicides (glyphosate or glufosinate) and for improved oil compositions. Approximately 43% of a canola seed is oil.[20] What remains is a rapeseed meal that is used as high quality animal feed. Canola oil is a key ingredient in many foods and is sold directly to consumers as margarine or cooking oil, and is the third most widely consumed vegetable oil in the world.[21] The oil has many non-food uses, including making lipsticks.[22]

As for soybeans, approximately 95% of the US crop is GM, and approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and vegetable oil.[23] The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed and dog food. 98% of the U.S. soybean crop is used for livestock feed.[24][25] A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.

Maize (called corn, in the US) and cornmeal (ground dried maize) constitute a staple food in many regions of the world. Grown since 1997 in the United States and Canada, 86% of the US maize crop was genetically modified in 2010[26] and 32% of the worldwide maize crop was GM in 2011.[27] In 2011, 49% of the total maize harvest was used for livestock feed (including the percentage from distillers grains), 27% went to ethanol production, 13% was exported, 4.1% of the US corn harvest was made into high fructose corn syrup, and the rest was used for other sweeteners, cornstarch, making alcohol for beverages, for cereal, and for seed - so less than 10% of the harvest was used for human food or drink.[28] Corn oil is sold directly as cooking oil and to make shortening and margarine.[29][30]

Cottonseed oil is used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially.[31] Approximately 93% of the US cotton crop is GM.

Vegetable oil in prepared foods

Corn oil is used to make vitamin carriers, as a source of lecithin, as an ingredient in prepared foods like mayonnaise, sauces, and soups; to fry potato chips and French fries.[29][32]

Sugar

The United States imports 10% of its sugar from other countries, while the remaining 90% is extracted from domestically grown sugar beet and sugarcane. Of the domestically grown sugar crops, half of the extracted sugar is derived from sugar beet, and the other half is from sugarcane.

After deregulation in 2005, glyphosate-resistant sugar beet was extensively adopted in the United States. 95% of sugar beet acres in the US were planted with glyphosate-resistant seed in 2011.[7] Sugar beets that are herbicide-tolerant have been approved in Australia, Canada, Colombia, EU, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore, and USA.[33]

The food products of sugar beets are refined sugar and molasses. Pulp remaining from the refining process is used as animal feed. The sugar produced from GM sugarbeets is highly refined and contains no DNA or protein—it is just sucrose, the same as sugar produced from non-GM sugarbeets.[34]

Detection

Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques like DNA microarrays or qPCR. These tests can be based on screening genetic elements (like p35S, tNos, pat, or bar) or event-specific markers for the official GMOs (like Mon810, Bt11, or GT73). The array-based method combines multiplex PCR and array technology to screen samples for different potential GMOs,[35] combining different approaches (screening elements, plant-specific markers, and event-specific markers).

The qPCR is used to detect specific GMO events by usage of specific primers for screening elements or event-specific markers. Controls are necessary to avoid false positive or false negative results. For example, a test for CaMV is used to avoid a false positive in the event of a virus contaminated sample.

In a January 2010 paper[36] the extraction and detection of DNA along a complete industrial soybean oil processing chain was described to monitor the presence of Roundup Ready (RR) soybean: "The amplification of soybean lectin gene by end-point polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was successfully achieved in all the steps of extraction and refining processes, until the fully refined soybean oil. The amplification of RR soybean by PCR assays using event-specific primers was also achieved for all the extraction and refining steps, except for the intermediate steps of refining (neutralisation, washing and bleaching) possibly due to sample instability. The real-time PCR assays using specific probes confirmed all the results and proved that it is possible to detect and quantify genetically modified organisms in the fully refined soybean oil. To our knowledge, this has never been reported before and represents an important accomplishment regarding the traceability of genetically modified organisms in refined oils."

Regulation

Main article: Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms

The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO). There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the USA and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety,[11] while GM crops intended for use in human or animal food are reviewed by such authorities. Additionally, various govern the importation of GM commodities, as well as food made using GM commodities.

Controversy

Main article: Genetically modified food controversies

There are controversies around GM food on several levels, including whether food produced with it is safe, whether it should be labeled and if so how, whether agricultural biotech is needed to address world hunger now or in the future, and more specifically to GM crops—intellectual property and market dynamics; environmental effects of GM crops; and GM crops' role in industrial agricultural more generally.

See also

References

  1. ^ GM Science Review First Report, Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9
  2. ^ a b c James, Clive (1996). "Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995" (PDF). The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  3. ^ http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm113672.htm
  4. ^ NRC. (2004). Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects. National Academies Press. Free full text.
  5. ^ Deborah MacKenzie, "How the humble potato could feed the world" (cover story) New Scientist No 2667 2 August 2008 30-33
  6. ^ Lederberg J, Tatum EL (1946). "Gene recombination in E. coli". Nature. 158 (4016): 558. Bibcode:1946Natur.158..558L. doi:10.1038/158558a0.
  7. ^ a b James, C (2011). "ISAAA Brief 43, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011". ISAAA Briefs. Ithaca, New York: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). Retrieved 2012-06-02. Cite error: The named reference "James2011" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ Andrew Pollack for the New York Times. "An Entrepreneur Bankrolls a Genetically Engineered Salmon" Published: May 21, 2012. Accessed September 3, 2012 [1]
  9. ^ Ronald, Pamela and McWilliams, James Genetically Engineered Distortions The New York Times, May 14, 2010, Retrieved July 26, 2010.
  10. ^ after http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/new-leaf-potato.aspx
  11. ^ a b c http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm Cite error: The named reference "PotatoPro" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  12. ^ Research in Germany, November 17, 2011. Business BASF applies for approval for another biotech potato
  13. ^ Burger, Ludwig (31 October 2011) BASF applies for EU approval for Fortuna GM potato Reuters, Frankfurt. Retrieved 29 December 2011
  14. ^ Johnson, Stanley R. et al Quantification of the Impacts on US Agriculture of Biotechnology-Derived Crops Planted in 2006 National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Washington DC, February 2008. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
  15. ^ Michelle Simon for Food Safety News. August 24, 2011. ConAgra Sued Over GMO ’100% Natural’ Cooking Oils
  16. ^ USDA Alphabetical list of protein content of foods -- see Oils
  17. ^ How Cooking Oil is Made
  18. ^ Crevel RW, et al (2000) Allergenicity of refined vegetable oils. Food Chem Toxicol. 2000 Apr;38(4):385-93. Article analyzed oil for protein content - this is a non-GM oil but shows the principle
  19. ^ ingredients of margarine
  20. ^ Soyatech.com
  21. ^ http://www.canolainfo.org/canola/index.php
  22. ^ Canola Council of Canada Canola Oil - The Myths Debunked accessdate=2011-10-19
  23. ^ "Canola Oil". Soyatech. Retrieved February 18, 2012.
  24. ^ David Bennett for Southeast Farm Press, February 5, 2003 World soybean consumption quickens
  25. ^ "Soybean". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved February 18, 2012.
  26. ^ National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), Agricultural Statistics Board, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Acreage report for 2010
  27. ^ ISAAA Biotech Maize Update 2011
  28. ^ 2012 World of Conn, National Corn Growers Association
  29. ^ a b Poster of corn products
  30. ^ Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils, 2006. Food Fats and Oils accessdate=2011-11-19
  31. ^ National Cottonseed Producers Association Twenty Facts about Cottonseed Oil
  32. ^ Corn Refiners Association. Corn Oil 5th Edition. 2006
  33. ^ ISAAA Pocket K No. 2: Plant Products of Biotechnology
  34. ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2009) Sugar Beet: White Sugar see p. 9
  35. ^ BGMO.jrc.ec.europa.eu
  36. ^ Costa, Joana; Mafra, Isabel; Amaral, Joana S.; Oliveira, M.B.P.P. (2010). "Monitoring genetically modified soybean along the industrial soybean oil extraction and refining processes by polymerase chain reaction techniques". Food Research International. 43: 301. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2009.10.003.

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