Great Smog of 1952
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The Great Smog (or "Big Smoke")[1] of London refers to the severe smog that affected the city during the period of Friday 5th to Tuesday 9th December 1952, and is acknowledged as the UK's worst air pollution event.[2] Earlier reports suggested that 4000 died prematurely and 100,000 were made ill by the Great Smog, but more recent research has shown that the number of smog-related deaths was underestimated and is now thought to be considerably higher - around 12,000. The London Smog of 1952 is acknowledged as one of the most significant pollution episodes in history in terms of its impact on environmental research, government regulation, and public awareness of the relationship between air quality and health.[3]
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[edit] Events
- Sources of Pollution
The very cold weather preceding and during the smog meant that Londoners had to burn more coal than usual to keep warm. Post-war domestic coal tended to be of a relatively low-grade, sulphurous variety, which increased the amount of sulphur dioxide in the smoke (economic necessity meant that higher quality coal tended to be exported). In addition there was pollution and smoke from vehicle exhausts - particularly from diesel-fuelled buses which had replaced the recently scrapped electric tram system - and from industrial and commercial sources.[4] Prevailing winds had also blown heavily-polluted air across the English Channel from industrial areas of Europe.
- Weather
On Thursday 4th December 1952, an anticyclone settled over a windless London causing a temperature inversion with very cold, stagnant air trapped under a layer (or "lid") of warm air. The resultant fog mixed with chimney smoke, particulates (e.g. from vehicle exhausts) and other pollutants (particularly sulphur dioxide) to form a persistent smog which blanketed the capital (the presence of tarry particles of soot gave the smog its yellow-black colour - hence the nickname "peasouper").[4] The absence of significant wind prevented its dispersal and allowed an unprecedented build up of pollutants.
- Impact on London
Although London was accustomed to thick fogs this one was denser and longer lasting than any previously seen.[5] Visibility was reduced to a few yards ("It's like you were blind", commented one observer[6]) making driving difficult or impossible. Public transport ground to a halt - apart from the London Underground - and the ambulance service stopped running, forcing the sick to make their own way to hospital.[6] The smog even seeped indoors, resulting in the cancellation or abandonment of concerts and film screenings. Outdoor sports events were also affected.
[edit] Health Impact
Initially, there was no great panic, as London was renowned for its fog. In the weeks that followed, however, statistics compiled by medical services found that the fog had killed 4,000 people[7]. Most of the victims were very young, elderly, and/or had pre-existing respiratory problems. Deaths in most cases were due to respiratory tract infections from hypoxia, and due to mechanical obstruction of the air passages by pus arising from lung infections caused by the smog.
The lung infections were mainly bronchopneumonia or acute purulent bronchitis superimposed upon chronic bronchitis.[8]
A total of 8,000 people died in the weeks and months that followed.
[edit] Environmental Impact
The death toll formed an important impetus to the modern environmental movement, and led to a rethinking of air pollution, as the smog had demonstrated its lethal potential. New regulations were put in place restricting the use of dirty fuels in industry and banning black smoke. In the years that followed, various legislation such as the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and of 1968, as well as London's (Various Powers) Act of 1954 greatly restricted air pollution.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Stegeman, John J. & Solow, Andrew R. A Look Back at the London Smog of 1952 and the Half Century Since; A Half Century Later: Recollections of the London Fog (Environmental Health Perspectives, Dec 2002).
- ^ McKie, Robin & Townsend, Mark. Great Smog is history, but foul air still kills (The Observer, 24 Nov 2002).
- ^ Bell, Michelle L. Davis, Devra L. Fletcher, Tony. A retrospective assessment of mortality from the London smog episode of 1952: the role of influenza and pollution (Environmental Health Perspectives, Jan 2004).
- ^ a b Mason, Nigel; Hughes, Peter; Mc Mllan, Randall. Introduction to environmental physics (CRC, 2001), pp112-113.
- ^ GLA. 50 Years On - The struggle for air quality in London since the great smog of December 1952 (pdf), p3.
- ^ a b NPR. Killer Fog of '52 (National Public Radio).
- ^ "The Great Smog of 1952". www.metoffice.gov.uk. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/teens/casestudy_great_smog.html. Retrieved on 2008-08-17.
- ^ Camps, Francis E (Ed.) (1976). Gradwohl's Legal Medicine (Bristol: John Wright & Sons Ltd, 3rd ed.) ISBN 0 7236 0310 3. p236.
[edit] Further Reading
- Bell, Michelle L. and Davis, Devra Lee. Reassessment of the Lethal London Fog of 1952: Novel Indicators of Acute and Chronic Consequences of Acute Exposure to Air Pollution ("Environmental Health Perspectives", June 2001).
- Berridge, Virginia (Ed.). The Big Smoke: Fifty Years After the 1952 London Smog (University of London, Institute of Historical Research, 2005)
- Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987).
- Greater London Authority. 50 Years On - The struggle for air quality in London since the great smog of December 1952 (Dec 2002).
[edit] External links
- A proper pea-souper. Photos of the 1952 London smog (nickelinthemachine.com).
- The London Smog Disaster of 1952 (Edinburgh University).
- 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos BBC News, 1952-12-09.
- London Fog ("Best London Scenes)
- Days of toxic darkness (BBC News).
