Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)

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Haplogroup A
Possible time of origin 140,000 ypb[1]
Possible place of origin Central-Northwest Africa[1]
Ancestor Human Y-MRCA
Descendants A1a-T, A1b
Defining mutations
Highest frequencies Namibia (Tsumkwe San, Nama) 60-70%
Southern Sudan (Dinka, Shilluk, Nuer) 33%-61.5%
Ethiopia (Beta Israel ) 41%-46%

In human genetics, Haplogroup A is the lineage of all men. Because of a mistake in phylogeny, it used to refer to a group of y-chromosome lineages that were later found to be among the first to branch off from the root of the human y-chromosome phylogeny, and are now referred to as "haplogroup A proper" or "haplogroup A(xBT)". No mutations define Haplogroup A, but since this nomenclature only deals with Homo Sapiens sapiens, the "Y-Chromosomal Adam" can be considered its' founder.

Haplogroup A(xBT) is largely restricted to parts of Africa, though a handful of cases have been reported in Europe and Western Asia. The clade achieves its highest modern frequencies in the Bushmen hunter-gatherer populations of Southern Africa, followed closely by many Nilotic groups in Eastern Africa. However, haplogroup A's oldest sub-clades are exclusively found in Central-Northwest Africa, where it, and consequently Y-chromosomal Adam, is believed to have originated about 140,000 years ago.[1] The clade has also been observed at notable frequencies in certain populations in Ethiopia, as well as some Pygmy groups in Central Africa.

Haplogroup A is less common among Niger–Congo speakers, who largely belong to the E1b1a clade. Haplogroup E in general is believed to have originated in Northeast Africa,[2] and was later introduced to West Africa from where it spread around 5,000 years ago to Central, Southern and Southeastern Africa with the Bantu expansion.[3][4] According to Wood et al. (2005) and Rosa et al. (2007), such relatively recent population movements from West Africa changed the pre-existing population Y chromosomal diversity in Central, Southern and Southeastern Africa, replacing the previous haplogroups in these areas with the now dominant E1b1a lineages. Traces of ancestral inhabitants, however, can be observed today in these regions via the presence of the Y DNA haplogroups A-M91 and B-M60 that are common in certain relict populations, such as the Mbuti Pygmies and the Khoisan.[5][6][7]

Contents

[edit] Phylogeny

The revised y-chromosome family tree by Cruciani et al. 2011 compared with the family tree from Karafet et al. 2008

Initial sequencing of the human y-chromosome suggested that first split in the y-chromosome family tree occurred with the M91 mutation that separated Haplogroup A from Haplogroup BT.[8] However, it is now known that deepest split in the Y-chromosome tree is found between two previously reported subclades of Haplogroup A, rather than between Haplogroup A and Haplogroup BT. Subclades A1b and A1a-T now descend directly from the root of the tree. The rearrangement of the Y-chromosome family tree implies that lineages classified as Haplogroup A do not necessarily form a monophyletic clade.[9] Haplogroup A therefore refers to a collection of lineages that do not possess the markers that define Haplogroup BT, though many lineages within haplogroup A are only very distantly related.

The M91 and P97 mutations distinguish Haplogroup A from Haplogroup BT . Within Haplogroup A chromosomes, the M91 marker consists of a stretch of 8 T nucleobase units. In Haplogroup BT and chimpanzee chromosomes, this marker consists of 9 T nucleobase units. This pattern suggested that the 9T stretch of Haplogroup BT was the ancestral version and that Haplogroup A was formed by the deletion of one nucleobase.[8][9]

But according to Cruciani et al. 2011, the region surrounding the M91 marker is a mutational hotspot prone to recurrent mutations. It is therefore possible that the 8T stretch of Haplogroup A may be the ancestral state of M91 and the 9T of Haplogroup BT may be the derived state that arose by an insertion of 1T. This would explain why subclades A1b and A1a-T, the deepest branches of Haplogroup A, both possess the 8T stretch. Furthermore Cruciani et al. 2011 determined that the P97 marker, which is also used to identify haplogroup A, possessed the ancestral state in haplogroup A but the derived state in Haplogroup BT.[9]

[edit] Origin

Haplogroup A is common among Khoisan people.

Many proposals for haplogroup A's origin suggest it was associated with the ancestral population of Southern Africa's hunter-gatherers. This is because Haplogroup A lineages are frequent among the San people. In addition, the most basal mitochondrial DNA lineages are also largely restricted to the San.

However the A lineages of Southern Africa are sub-clades of A lineages found in other parts of Africa. This suggests that A lineages arrived in Southern Africa from elsewhere.[10] The two most basal lineages of Haplogroup A, A1b and A1a, have been detected in West Africa, Northwest Africa and Central Africa. Cruciani et al. suggest that these lineages may have emerged somewhere in between Central and Northwest Africa, though such an interpretation is still preliminary due to the incomplete geographic coverage of African y-chromosomes.[9]

Initial studies reported that Haplogroup A lineages emerged around 60,000 years ago which was significantly more recent than TMRCA for mitochondrial DNA lineages which coalesce to between 150-200kya. But Cruciani et al. 2011 pushed back the root of the Y-chromosome tree to 142,000 years ago.[9]

[edit] Distribution

Haplogroup A frequencies
 Africa
. Study population  Freq.
  (in %)  
[6] Tsumkwe San (Namibia)  66%
[6] Nama (Namibia)   64
[11] Dinka (Sudan)   62
[11] Shilluk (Sudan)   53
[11] Nuba (Sudan)   46
[12] Khoisan   44
[13][14] Ethiopian Jews   41
[6][13] !Kung/Sekele   ~40
[11] Borgu (Sudan)   35
[11] Nuer (Sudan)   33
[11] Fur (Sudan)   31
[6] Maasai (Kenya)   27
[15] Nara (Eritrea)   20
[11] Masalit (Sudan)   19
[6][16] Amhara (Ethiopia)   ~16
[12] Ethiopians   14
[17] Bantu (Kenya)   14
[6] Mandara (Cameroon)   14
[11] Hausa (Sudan)   13
[13] Khwe (South Africa)   12
[13] Fulbe (Cameroon)   12
[6] Dama (Namibia)   11
[16] Oromo (Ethiopia)   10
[15] Kunama (Eritrea)   10
[6] South Semitic (Ethiopia)   10
[17] Arabs (Egypt)   3

In a composite sample of 3551 African men, Haplogroup A had a frequency of 5.4%.[18] The highest frequencies of haplogroup A have been reported among the Khoisan of Southern Africa, Beta Israel, and Nilo-Saharans from Sudan.

[edit] Africa —Central

Haplogroup A3b2-M13 has been observed in populations of northern Cameroon (2/9 = 22% Tupuri,[6] 4/28 = 14% Mandara,[6] 2/17 = 12% Fulbe[13]) and eastern DRC (2/9 = 22% Alur,[6] 1/18 = 6% Hema,[6] 1/47 = 2% Mbuti[6]).

Haplogroup A-M91(xA1a-M31, A2-M6/M14/P3/P4, A3-M32) has been observed in the Bakola people of southern Cameroon (3/33 = 9%).[6]

Without testing for any subclade, haplogroup A Y-DNA has been observed in samples of several populations of Gabon, including 9% (3/33) of a sample of Baka, 3% (1/36) of a sample of Ndumu, 2% (1/46) of a sample of Duma, 2% (1/57) of a sample of Nzebi, and 2% (1/60) of a sample of Tsogo.[19]

[edit] Africa —Eastern

Haplogroup A3b2-M13 is common among the Southern Sudanese (53%),[11] especially the Dinka Sudanese (61.5%).[20] Haplogroup A3b2-M13 also has been observed in another sample of a South Sudanese population at a frequency of 45% (18/40), including 1/40 A3b2a-M171.[12] Haplogroup A also has been reported in 14.6% (7/48) of an Amhara sample,[16] 10.3% (8/78) of an Oromo sample,[16] 13.6% (12/88) of another sample from Ethiopia,[12] and 41% of a sample of the Beta Israel (Cruciani et al. 2002), and important percentages are also shared by Bantus in Kenya (14%, Luis et al. 2004) and Iraqw in Tanzania (3/43 = 7.0% (Luis et al. 2004) to 1/6 = 17% (Knight et al. 2003)).

[edit] Africa —Northern

The subclade A1 has been observed in Moroccan Berbers, while the subclade A3b2 has been observed in approximately 3% of Egyptian males.

[edit] Africa —Southern

One study has found haplogroup A in samples of various Khoisan-speaking tribes with frequency ranging from 10% to 70%.[6] Surprisingly, this particular haplogroup was not found in a sample of the Hadzabe from Tanzania, a population traditionally considered an ancient remnant of Khoisans due to the presence of click consonants in their language.

[edit] Eurasia

Haplogroup A has been observed as A1 in European men in England. As A3b2, it has been observed with low frequency in Asia Minor, the Middle East, and some Mediterranean islands, among Aegean Turks, Sardinians, Palestinians, Jordanians, Yemenites, and Omanis. Without testing for any subclade, haplogroup A has been observed in a sample of Greeks from Mitilini on the Aegean island of Lesvos[21] and in samples of Portuguese from southern Portugal, central Portugal, and Madeira.[22] The authors of one study have reported finding what appears to be haplogroup A in 3.1% (2/65) of a sample of Cypriots,[23] though they have not definitively excluded the possibility that either of these individuals may belong to haplogroup B or haplogroup C.

[edit] Subclades

[edit] A1b-V164

Found only in Bakola Pygmies (South Cameroon) at 8.3% and Berbers from Algeria at 1.5%.[9]

[edit] A1a-M31

The subclade A1a-M31 has been found in approximately 2.8% (8/282) of a pool of seven samples of various ethnic groups in Guinea-Bissau, especially among the Papel-Manjaco-Mancanha (5/64 = 7.8%).[5] In an earlier study published in 2003, Gonçalves et al. have reported finding A1a-M31 in 5.1% (14/276) of a sample from Guinea-Bissau and in 0.5% (1/201) of a pair of samples from Cabo Verde.[24] The authors of another study have reported finding haplogroup A1a-M31 in 5% (2/39) of a sample of Mandinka from Senegambia and 2% (1/55) of a sample of Dogon from Mali.[6] Haplogroup A1a-M31 also has been found in 3% (2/64) of a sample of Berbers from Morocco[13] and 2.3% (1/44) of a sample of unspecified ethnic affiliation from Mali.[12]

In 2007, seven men from Yorkshire, England sharing a distinctive surname were identified as being from the A1a-m31 subgroup of haplogroup A. It was discovered that these men had a common male-line ancestor from the 18th century, but no previous information about African ancestry was known. [18]

[edit] A2-M6

This subclade of haplogroup A is typically found among Khoisan peoples. The authors of one study have reported finding haplogroup A2-M6(xA2b-P28) in 28% (8/29) of a sample of Tsumkwe San and 16% (5/32) of a sample of !Kung/Sekele, and haplogroup A2b-P28 in 17% (5/29) of a sample of Tsumkwe San, 9% (3/32) of a sample of !Kung/Sekele, 9% (1/11) of a sample of Nama, and 6% (1/18) of a sample of Dama.[6] The authors of another study have reported finding haplogroup A2 in 15.4% (6/39) of a sample of Khoisan males, including 5/39 A2-M6/M14/M23/M29/M49/M71/M135/M141(xA2a-M114) and 1/39 A2a-M114.[12]

[edit] A3-M32

This clade contains the most populous branches of haplogroup A and is mainly found in Eastern Africa and Southern Africa.

[edit] A3a-M28

This subclade of haplogroup A3 has only been rarely observed in the Horn of Africa. In 5% (1/20) of a mixed sample of speakers of South Semitic languages from Ethiopia,[6] 1.1% (1/88) of a sample of Ethiopians,[12] and 0.5% (1/201) in Somalis.[25]

[edit] A3b1-M51

This subclade of haplogroup A3 occurs most frequently among Khoisan peoples (6/11 = 55% Nama,[6] 11/39 = 28% Khoisan,[12] 7/32 = 22% !Kung/Sekele,[6] 6/29 = 21% Tsumkwe San,[6] 1/18 = 6% Dama[6]). However, it also has been found with lower frequency among Bantu peoples of Southern Africa, including 2/28 = 7% Sotho–Tswana,[6] 3/53 = 6% non-Khoisan Southern Africans,[12] 4/80 = 5% Xhosa,[6] and 1/29 = 3% Zulu.[6]

[edit] A3b2-M13

The subclade of haplogroup A3 that is commonly found in East Africa and northern Cameroon (A3b2-M13) is different from those found in the Khoisan samples and only remotely related to them (it is actually only one of many subclades within haplogroup A). This finding suggests an ancient divergence.

In Sudan, haplogroup A3b2-M13 has been found in 28/53 = 52.8% of Southern Sudanese, 13/28 = 46.4% of the Nuba of central Sudan, 25/90 = 27.8% of Western Sudanese, 4/32 = 12.5% of local Hausa people, and 5/216 = 2.3% of Northern Sudanese.[26]

In Ethiopia, one study has reported finding haplogroup A3b2-M13 in 14.6% (7/48) of a sample of Amhara and 10.3% (8/78) of a sample of Oromo.[16] Another study has reported finding haplogroup A3b2b-M118 in 6.8% (6/88) and haplogroup A3b2*-M13(xA3b2a-M171, A3b2b-M118) in 5.7% (5/88) of a mixed sample of Ethiopians, amounting to a total of 12.5% (11/88) A3b2-M13.[12]

Haplogroup A3b2 also has been observed occasionally outside of Central and Eastern Africa, as in the Aegean Region of Turkey (2/30 = 6.7%[27]), Yemenite Jews (1/20 = 5%[14]), Egypt (4/147 = 2.7%,[17] 3/92 = 3.3%[6]), Palestinian Arabs (2/143 = 1.4%[28]), Sardinia (1/77 = 1.3%,[29] 1/22 = 4.5%[12]), the capital of Jordan, Amman (1/101=1%[30]), and Oman (1/121 = 0.8%[17]).

[edit] Tree

This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup subclades is based on the Y-Chromosome Consortium (YCC) Tree,[31] the ISOGG Y-DNA Haplogroup Tree,[3] and subsequent published research.

Y-chromosomal Adam

  • A1b (V148, V149, V150, V151, V152, V13, V154, V157, V158, V159, V161, V162, V163, V164, V165, V166, V167, V169, V170, V172, V173, V176, V177, V181, V190, V195, V196, V223, V229, V233, V239)
  • A1a-T (V168, V171, V174, V203, V238, V241, V250)
    • A1a (M31, P82, V4, V14, V15, V25, V26, V28, V30, V40, V48, V53, V57, V58, V63, V76, V191, V201, V204, V214, V215, V236)
    • A2-T (P108, V221)
      • A2 (M6, M14, M23, M29/P3/PN3, M49/Page41, M71, M135, M141, M196, M206, M212, M276/P247, M277/P248, MEH1, P4, P5, P36.1, Page52, Page71, Page87, V50)
        • A2a (M114)
        • A2b (P28)
        • A2c (P262)
      • A3 (V1, Page77/V10, V51, V56, V66, V67, V89, V98, V155, V156, V160, V193, V194, V230, V243)
        • A3a (M28, M59)
        • A3b (M144, M190/Page35, M220, P289, Page50)
          • A3b1 (M51/Page42, P100, P291)
            • A3b1a (P71, P102)
          • A3b2 (M13, M127, M202, M219, M305/Page17, Page53)
            • A3b2a (M171)
            • A3b2b (M118)
      • BT (M42, M94, M139, M299, M60, M181/Page32, P85, P90, P97, Page65.1/SRY1532.1/SRY10831.1, V21, V29, V31, V59, V64, V102, V187, V202, V216, V235)

[edit] See also

Evolutionary tree of Human Y-chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroups
most recent common Y-ancestor
A
A1b A1a-T
A1a A2-T
A2 A3 BT
B CT
DE CF
D E C F
G H IJK
IJ K
I J LT K(xLT)
L T M NO P S
O N Q R

Y-DNA by populations · Famous Y-DNA haplotypes

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c Cruciani, Fulvio; et al. (19 May 2011). A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa. 88. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.002. http://www.cell.com/AJHG/fulltext/S0002-9297%2811%2900164-9. Retrieved 11 June 2011. 
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  14. ^ a b Peidong Shen, Tal Lavi, Toomas Kivisild et al., "Reconstruction of Patrilineages and Matrilineages of Samaritans and Other Israeli Populations From Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variation," Human Mutation 24:248-260 (2004).
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    News article: "Yorkshire clan linked to Africa". BBC News. 2007-01-24. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6293333.stm. Retrieved 2007-01-27. 
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  20. ^ 16/26, Hassan et al. 2008
  21. ^ Giacomo F. Di, Luca F., Anagnou N. et al. (2003). "Clinal patterns of human Y chromosomal diversity in continental Italy and Greece are dominated by drift and founder effects". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 28 (3): 387–395. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00016-2. PMID 12927125. 
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  24. ^ Rita Gonçalves, Alexandra Rosa, Ana Freitas et al., "Y-chromosome lineages in Cabo Verde Islands witness the diverse geographic origin of its first male settlers," Human Genetics (2003) 113 : 467–472
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  26. ^ Hisham Y. Hassan et al. (2008). "Southern Sudanese" includes 26 Dinka, 15 Shilluk, and 12 Nuer. "Western Sudanese" includes 26 Borgu, 32 Masalit, and 32 Fur. "Northern Sudanese" includes 39 Nubians, 42 Beja, 33 Copts, 50 Gaalien, 28 Meseria, and 24 Arakien.
  27. ^ Cengiz Cinnioglu, Roy King, Toomas Kivisild et al., "Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia," Human Genetics (2004) 114 : 127–148. DOI 10.1007/s00439-003-1031-4
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  30. ^ Flores et al., C; Maca-Meyer, N; Larruga, JM; Cabrera, VM; Karadsheh, N; Gonzalez, AM (2005). "Isolates in a corridor of migrations: a high-resolution analysis of Y-chromosome variation in Jordan". J Hum Genet 50 (9): 435–441. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0274-4. PMID 16142507. 
  31. ^ Krahn, Thomas. "YCC Tree". Houston, Texas: FTDNA. http://ytree.ftdna.com/. Retrieved 16 May 2011. 

[edit] External links

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