History of Latin America

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Latin America refers to countries in the Americas where Romance (Latin-derived) languages are spoken. These countries generally lie south of the United States. By extension, some writers and commentators, particularly in the United States, apply the term to the whole region south of the United States, including the non-Romance-speaking countries such as Suriname, Jamaica, and Guyana, due to similar economic, political and social histories and present-day conditions.

Before the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the region was home to many indigenous peoples, many of which had advanced civilizations, most notably, the Aztec, Inca and Maya. By the end of the sixteenth century large areas of what would become Latin America was colonized by European settlers, primarily from Spain, Portugal and to a lesser extent, France and the Netherlands (in Brazil). In the early nineteenth century most of the region attained its independence, giving rise to new countries, although a few, small colonies remain.

Contents 1 Origin of the term and definition 2 The Pre-Columbian period 3 Colonialism 4 19th Century Revolutions: the Post Colonial Era 5 20th century 5.1 1900-1920 5.2 Years 1930-1960 6 American policies and doctrines imposed on Latin America 7 See also 7.1 Pre-Columbian 7.2 Colonization 7.3 History by Region 7.4 History by country 7.5 Other topics 8 Notes 9 Bibliography

[edit] Origin of the term and definition

The idea that a part of the Americas has a cultural or racial affinity with all Romance cultures can be traced back to the 1830s, in particular in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas were inhabited by people of a "Latin race," and that it could, therefore, ally itself with "Latin Europe" in a struggle with "Teutonic Europe," "Anglo-Saxon America" and "Slavic Europe."^[1] The idea was later taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France.^[2] The actual term "Latin America" was coined in France under Napoleon III and played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area and install Maximilian as emperor of Mexico.^[3]

In the mid-twentieth century, especially in the United States, there was a trend to occasionally classify all of the territory south of the United States as "Latin America," especially when the discussion focused on its political and economic relations to the rest of the world, rather than its cultural aspects. This was because the non-Latin nations and dependencies of this region of the world share a common economic and political history with its Latin neighbors. Concurrently, there has been a move to avoid this oversimplification by talking about "Latin America and the Caribbean," as in the United Nations geoscheme.

As noted, the definitions of Latin American are very modern, going back only to the nineteenth century; so it might be a bit anachronistic to talk about "a history of Latin America" before the arrival the Europeans, but the many and varied cultures that did exist in the pre-Columbian period had a strong and direct influence on the societies that emerged from, and after, the conquest, that they cannot be overlooked and are introduced below.

[edit] The Pre-Columbian period

Latin American history extends back many centuries, possibly as long as 30,000 years. There are many models of migration to the New World. Precise dating of many of the early civilizations is difficult because there are few text sources. However, highly-developed civilizations flourished at various times and places, such as in the Andes and Mesoamerica.

[edit] Colonialism

Christopher Columbus "discovered" the Americas in 1492. Subsequently, the major sea powers in Europe sent expeditions to the New World to build trade networks and colonies and to convert the native peoples to Christianity. Spain concentrated building its empire on the central and southern parts of the Americas allotted to it by the Treaty of Tordesillas, because of presence of large, settled societies like the Aztec, the Inca, the Maya and the Chibcha, whose human and material resources it could exploit, and large concentrations of silver and gold. The Portuguese built its empire in Brazil, which fell in its sphere of influence per the Treaty of Tordesillas, by developing the land for sugar production since there was a lack of a large, complex society or mineral resources.

[edit] 19th Century Revolutions: the Post Colonial Era

Following the model of the U.S. and French revolutions, most of Latin America achieved its independence by 1825. However, Europe and the United States continued to play major roles.

The independence of Latin American countries rendered many of the older colonial power structures obsolete and helped create a new, self-consciously "Latin American" ruling class and intelligentsia. It should be noted, however, that during the first century after independence, elites looked towards European, Catholic models—in particular France—for a new Latin American culture, and even if they at times avoided Spanish and Portuguese models, they did not seek input from the indigenous peoples.

In many cases this restructuring of economic and political realities resulted in a sizable gap between rich and poor, with landed elites controlling the vast majority of land and resources. In Brazil in 1910, for instance, 85% of the land belonged to 1% of the population. Gold mining and fruit growing, in particular, were monopolized by these wealthy landowners. These 'Great Owners' totally controlled the local activity and furthermore were the principal employers and the main source of revenue. This led to a society of peasants with little connection to larger political realities who remained in thrall to farming and mining magnates.

In Spanish America the failed efforts to keep together Gran Colombia, the Federal Republic of Central America^[4] and the United Provinces of South America, a number of interstate conflicts broke out in which the interior of the countries was often plagued by the fights between federalists and centrists who ended up asserted themselves through the military repression of the opponents. For the next few decades there was a long process to create a sense of nationality. Most of the new national borders were created around the often centuries-old audiencia jurisdictions, which had created a sense of political space, or the Bourbon intendancies. The new nations inherited the cultural diversity of the colonial era and strived to create a new identity based around the shared European (Spanish or Portuguese) language and culture. Brazil remained a united monarchy and avoided the problem of civil and interstate wars.

Continuing instability in the Latin American states caused the recurring emergence of caudillos, military chiefs whose hold on power depended on their military skill and ability to dispense patronage.

The regimes were either presidential, a little liberal and rather democratic; or parliamentary that is to say more liberal, less democratic and more oligarchic. In both cases, the opinion of the average-man was devalued.

The political landscape was occupied by the conservatives and the liberals, neither of whom had a social policy. Popular insurrections were often influential and repressed: 100,000 were killed during the suppression of a Colombian revolt around 1890.

Only some states managed to have some semblance of democracy: Uruguay, and partially Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica and Colombia. The others were clearly oligarchist, sometimes with a major support.

Latin America was economically dependent on Europe, primarily Britain), and the United States after the mid-nineteenth century. Independence left a place for an increased dependence on the financial investment provided by nations which had already begun to industrialize.

[edit] 20th century

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[edit] 1900-1920

A few agreements were signed with the American intervention in Cuba in 1898 and Platt Amendment in 1902, which authorized the U.S. to intervene in Cuba if necessary. The old Monroe Doctrine, which impeded European interventions, was therefore replaced by the Big Stick Doctrine, a more interventionist doctrine aimed to defend U.S. interests.

In Colombia, the concession of the Panama Canal was repurchased in 1903, but the Colombian elites opposed this American seizure. A Panamanian insurrection then occurred, armed with military material marked with the "U.S." sign, independence was imposed, and Panama became an ally of the United States.

In Mexico, Porfirio Díaz promised that he would withdraw from power in 1908. Francisco Madero, a moderate liberal whose aim was to modernize the country calmly in order to avoid a socialist revolution, launched an election campaign in 1910 to defend liberal ideas. But Díaz organized a seventh faked election, which prompted the Mexican Revolution. Riots were organized and some key leaders appeared: Pancho Villa in the north, Emiliano Zapata in the south, and a more moderate Francisco I. Madero in Mexico City. The United States finally released Porfirio Díaz in 1911, who resigned on May 27, and fled, leaving the scene to Madero, who become President on November 6, 1911. Madero undertook a democratization process, but little was made in relation of the agrarian claims while Zapata continued the revolution. In February 18, 1913 Adolfo de la Huerta, a conservative general organized a coup d'état with the support of the United States: Madero was killed on the 22nd. Other revolutionary chiefs: Pancho Villa, Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza rejected this "usurper," who was soon thereafter released by the United States, dissatisfied with his dictatorial behavior. Allies Zapata and Villa took Mexico City in March 1914, but in this working city they were not on their ground and withdrew to their respective bastions. This allowed Carranza, after the escape of Huerta in July 1914, to carry out a battle for victory. He then organized the repression of the rebel armies of Villa and Zapata, in particular by general Álvaro Obregón who gained decisive victories in 1915, took Mexico City and became a de facto president in October 1915. The Mexican constitution of 1917 was proclaimed, but little enforced.

Under the orders of Carranza and with the American military support, Obregón continues his military pressure on the rebels. Zapata is finally assassinated in April 10, 1919. Carranza, the president, is assassinated in May 15, 1920, leaving the place to Obregón, who becomes an elected president. Finally in 1923, it is Pancho Villa who is assassinated.

Mexico finally becomes pacified by the accession of that liberal president, but agrarian aspirations of the work force remain unsatisfied.

[edit] Years 1930-1960

The arrival of Franklin Roosevelt in 1933 gives way to his Good Neighbor Policy and allows certain nationalizations and attainments of American interests. The Platt Amendment is repealed, liberating Cuba. Mexican President Lazaro Cardenas nationalizes certain large American companies, creates Pemex, and redistributes a quantity of land.

Since 1860, Cuba had focused on the cultivation of sugar, of which 82% was now feeding into the American market. Cuba was described however as being the brothel of the U.S., where one finds all sorts of pleasures provided he is rich. The U.S. intervened many times to suppress popular uprisings, and to maintain Cuban governments favorable to its own interests. The latter country had a socially advanced constitution whose execution was, however, deeply corrupt, and a large part of the goods and exploits of sugar were at the hands of American companies. Since 1933, Fulgencio Batista was the key autocrat of Cuba. His authoritarian coup in 1952 did not end with an ignoble dictatorship, but it did not change much; corruption endured, and the American presence grew. Certain revolutionaries, such as Fidel Castro, organized a revolution to reestablish a democratic state and free itself from the American influence.

Having left Mexico on a yacht christened Granma December 2, 1956, the 82 sailors are finally reduced to 13, and lead a guerilla coup of the mountain, of which the principal conflict was a work of propaganda, for example via Radio Rebelde. More and more powerful against an unmotivated Cuban army, the guerillas conquered Cuba between October 1958 and January 1, 1959.

Castro, who first declared himself as a non-socialist, eventually embarked his country on a program of agrarian reforms and nationalizations in May 1959 and especially December 1960 which pushed John Kennedy to intervene, an event known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, April 16, 1961. But instead of taking Cuba back to the American modus operandi, this radicalized its position, and Cuba proclaimed its character definitively socialist, making friends with the USSR, and arming itself, leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962.

[edit] American policies and doctrines imposed on Latin America

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• Monroe Doctrine (1823): James Monroe proclaimed Europe was to stay out of the independent American nations; this excluded European colonies.
• Big Stick Policy (1890-1920): The USA took the role of 'police officer' for other American countries, usually to protect its own interests.
• Drago Convention (1902):
• Tobar Policy (1907): Military coups and revolutionary governments were officially unrecognized by the USA.
• Wilson Doctrine: Crusade for democracy.
• Good Neighbor Policy (from Hoover to Roosevelt): equal-to-equal diplomacy.
• Kennedy Doctrine: offensive policy against Cuba (Bay of Pigs Invasion); containment policy against alleged communist movements, through national security doctrine (counter-insurgency training in the School of the Americas) and the Alliance for Progress
• Lyndon B. Johnson: support for the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état
• Richard Nixon: United States intervention in Chile
• Reagan Doctrine (1980s): The USA would fight against communism and socialism, even backing military coup d'états.

[edit] See also

[edit] Pre-Columbian

Oasisamerica: Navajo Apache Pima Cocopah Quechan Puebloan peoples Comanche Coahuiltecan

Aridoamerica: Guachichil Caxcan Zacateco Tecuexe Guamare Otomi Chichimeca Jonaz Cora Huichol Pame Yaquis Mayos O'odham Tepehuánes

Mesoamerica: Aztec Huastec Mixtec Maya Olmec Pipil Tarascan Teotihuacán Toltec Totonac Zapotec

South America: Chavin Chibcha Chimor Chachapoya Huari Inca Moche Nazca Tiwanaku

[edit] Colonization

British colonization of the Americas, Danish colonization of the Americas, Dutch colonization of the Americas, New Netherland, French New France, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, New Spain, Conquistador, Spanish conquest of Yucatan, Spanish conquest of Mexico, Spanish missions in California, Swedish

[edit] History by Region

v • d • e History of the Americas History North America · Mesoamerica · Central America · Caribbean · Latin America · South America Settlement Models of migration to the New World · Indigenous peoples · Indigenous population · Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact · Discoverer of the Americas · European colonization of the Americas · Spanish colonization of the Americas · Columbian Exchange · Decolonization Societies Pre-Columbian · Paleo-Indians · Maya · Incas · Aztecs Related Maps · Archaeology · Culture · Geography · Indigenous languages · Epidemics · Slavery Lists Pre-Columbian cultures · Indigenous peoples · Population · Conflicts Chronology Archaeological periods by region · North America by period · North American timelines · Mesoamerica by period · Mesoamerica timeline · Paleo-Indian period Era: By period · By region · Three-age system · Ancient history · Pre-Columbian · Classical Antiquity · Middle Ages · Modern history · Future

[edit] History by country

• History of Mexico
• Territorial evolution of the Caribbean

v • d • e History of Central America Sovereign states Belize · Costa Rica · El Salvador · Guatemala · Honduras · Nicaragua · Panama1 Mexico2 (Campeche • Chiapas • Quintana Roo • Tabasco • Yucatan) 1Also in or commonly considered to be part of South America. 2Physiographically, Mexico east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec is sometimes included.

v • d • e History of the Caribbean Anguilla · Antigua and Barbuda · Aruba · Bahamas · Barbados · British Virgin Islands · Cayman Islands · Cuba · Dominica · Dominican Republic · Grenada · Guadeloupe · Haiti · Jamaica · Martinique · Montserrat · Netherlands Antilles · Puerto Rico · St. Barthélemy · St. Kitts and Nevis · St. Lucia · St. Martin · St. Vincent and the Grenadines · Trinidad and Tobago · Turks and Caicos Islands · U.S. Virgin Islands Belize • Bermuda · Colombia · Costa Rica • French Guiana • Guatemala • Guyana • Honduras • Mexico • Nicaragua • Panama • Suriname · Venezuela ·

v • d • e History of South America Sovereign states Argentina · Bolivia · Brazil · Chile · Colombia · Ecuador · Guyana · Panama1 · Paraguay · Peru · Suriname · Trinidad and Tobago1 · Uruguay · Venezuela Dependencies Aruba1 / Netherlands Antilles1 (Netherlands) · Falkland Islands / South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (UK) 2 / French Guiana (France) 1 Territories also in or commonly considered to be part of North America and/or Central America.  2 Territories also in or commonly considered to be part of Antarctica.

[edit] Other topics

• Relations of Latin America with the United States
• Relations of Latin America with Europe
• Sino-Latino American relations
• Latin American integration
• Feminist history in Latin America
• History of the Jews in Latin America
• Landless Workers' Movement

[edit] Notes

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[edit] Bibliography

Introductions

• Bakewell, Peter, A History of Latin America (Blackwell History of the World (Paperback)), Blackwell Publishers 1997
• Bethell, Leslie (ed.), "The Cambridge History of Latin America, Cambridge University Press, 12 vls, 1984-2008

Brown, Jonathan C. Latin America: A Social History of the Colonial Period, Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2nd edition 2004

• Burns, Bradford, Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History, paperback, PrenticeHall 2001, 7th edition
• Green, Duncan, Silent Revolution: The Rise and Crisis of Market Economics in Latin America, New York University Press 2003
• Herring, Hubert, A History of Latin America: from the Beginnings to the Present, 1955. ISBN 0-07-553562-9
• Schoultz, Lars, Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America, Harvard University Press 1998,
• Skidmore, Thomas E. and Smith, Peter H., Modern Latin America, Oxford University Press 2005

Handbooks

• The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas (3 vols.)

Papers

• Valenzuela, Arturo. "Latin American Presidencies Interrupted" in Journal of Democracy Volume 15, Number 4 October 2004