History of skiing

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Skiing, or traveling over snow on wooden runners, has a recorded history of almost five millennia.

Contents

[edit] Ancient history

A skiing Sami woman or a goddess. Olaus Magnus (1553)

The first hints to the existence of skis are on 4500 to 5000 year old rock drawings, e.g. at Rødøy in Norway (discovered 1933) or at Steinkjer (discovered 2001),[1] which depict a man on skis holding a stick. The oldest known ski, Kalvträskskidan was found in 1924 in a mire near the village of Kalvträsk in the municipality of Skellefteå, Sweden, and has been carbon dated to roughly 3200 B.C. The earliest people to ski in Fennoscandia were the distant ancestors of modern day Sami.[2][3][4] One of the earliest names used for the Sami was skridfinner/scricfinni/scritefinni/σκριϑίψινοι,[5] which may be roughly translated as "skiing Sami".

The word ski goes back to the Old Norse word skíð meaning "a stick of wood"[1],[2]. In modern Norwegian this word is usually pronounced [ˈʃiː]. This word is now used in most languages in the world. Languages like English and French use the original spelling "ski", and modify the pronunciation. Languages like Italian pronounce it exactly as in Norwegian, and modify the spelling: "sci". German and Spanish adapt the word to their linguistic rules; "Schier" (however there is a form- Ski) and "esquí". Interestingly, many languages make a verb form out of the noun, such as "to ski" in English, "esquiar" in Spanish, "sciare" in Italian, or "schilaufen" (as above also Ski laufen or Ski fahren) in German which is not possible in Norwegian. In Swedish, a close relation to Norwegian, the word is "skidor" (pl.). However Finnish language has its own ancient words for skis and skiing. In Finnish ski is suksi and skiing is hiihtää. The original European skiers, the Sami, also have their own words for skis and skiing. For example, the Lule Sami word for ski is "sabek" and skis is "sabega".

[edit] Invention

There are six possible roots from which skis might have developed:[citation needed]

  • The pedal snowshoe, which was an oval wooden board later covered with fur.
  • The sledge runner, a possible model for the ski.
  • The fur shoe, which was a combination of moccasins and sandals and worn together with pedal snowshoes.
  • The marsh shoe, later was taken to colder regions.
  • The canoe or the coracle, both used in northern regions from very early on. Having been used as sledges, small ones might have served as proto-skis.
  • Spontaneous invention.

[edit] Early skis

Different types of skis emerged at various regions at about the same time. One suggested original inventor of skis seem to be the people of the Sayan Mountains in Asia. This is not verified. Skis may also have been used in Europe during and after the ice age. All in all there were three different historical types of skis in the north of Europe and Asia:

  • The Southern type had a horizontal toe-piece binding. One can distinguish the Fennoscandian type and the Russo-Baltic type. Modern ski bindings are based on the Fennoscandian model of the 19th century. The bindings of Telemark ski were developed from this type.
  • Eastern Siberian type was a thin board with a vertical four-hole binding. Sometimes it is covered with fur.
  • There was a third type, which had a horizontal stem-hole binding. One can distinguish between the types used by Sami (and some other Fenno-ugrics) and a type used in Central and Northern Siberia. Cross-country skis were developed from the type used by the Sami.

[edit] Ski poles

Ski poles go back to two roots:

  • The walking stick was used to keep balance.
  • The ski pole developed from a spear or a bow used for hunting. Double poles were used to reach a higher speed on skis, and better hunting.

[edit] Modern history of skiing

Pioneer Sondre Norheim, from Morgedal in Telemark, Norway has often been called the father of modern skiing for inventing the equipment and techniques that led to modern skiing as we see it today. Having grown up in the farmlands of Norwegian Telemark, Norheim invented a “birch” binding that enabled skiers to ski without the risk of losing their skis. Then, in 1870, Norheim introduced a short, curved, flexible ski he crafted in order to allow for easy turning in soft snow. Norheim, at the age of forty-three, went on to become the winner of the first Norwegian national skiing competition in Christiania (modern day Oslo).

It is possible that he actually did not invent anything, since there is little evidence to prove that he did. The story about Sondre as the father of modern skiing was largely constructed in Norway from the 1930s, especially in connection with the Olympic Winter Games in Oslo in 1952. Most of the inventions attributed to Norheim predated him significantly; but Sondre Norheim proved an inspiration for generations.

Modern recreational skiing depended heavily on mechanized transport. Mountain resorts became commercially viable when city-dwellers could reach them in winter by train beginning in 1868,[6] and with the development of electrically-driven funiculars and aerial tramways beginning around 1880 (Karl Bittner, "Milestones in Ropeway History," 1984, Internationale Seilbahn-Rundschau).

Events in the development of modern skiing include:

  • In the 17th century the baron of Valvasor wrote reports on skiing activities in Slovenia.
  • The usefulness of skis for military purpose sped up their development and spread. The Norwegian military had skiing competitions from the 1670s.
  • The first known civilian ski race took place in Tromsø, Norway, in 1843. (No supporting primary evidence supplied.)
  • 1861, the first identifiable and ceaseless alpine ski club was formed at Kiandra, Australia. (Confirmed by International Ski Federation. May 2011.) (Kiandra snow shoe club) Club History -[7]-[8]
  • 1861, unidentified ski clubs were reported to be formed at Onion Valley and La Porte, California. (see below Alturas ski club 1867.)[9]
  • 1861, the "Trysil Skytte- og Skiløberforening" (Shot and Ski Practitioner Association) was founded in Trysil, Hedmark, Norway. Held their first competition January 1862.
  • 1862, The first ski made specifically for organised alpine downhill racing was known as a "Skate" followed by the "Kiandra Kick-in" and "Butterpat". It was on this type of Australian ski, that the first fully documented ladies and children downhill events were held with names and results recorded.[10]
  • Skis were used in the Sierra Nevada gold fields in 1850 and later to ferry mail from Carson City, Nevada, to Placerville, California, in 1856, crossing 94 miles (151 km) in 4 days. Downhill ski races (at up to 90 mph) were organized between competing mining camps by 1857, and hit their peak in 1869, under the rules of the Thompson Alpine Club.
  • In 1867, the "Alturas Snowshoe (ski) Club", was formed at La Porte, California.[11][12]
  • In 1875, the first ski club (?), and two years later the first ski school were founded in Kristiania (now Oslo).
  • In the 19th century the Telemark ski revolutionized alpine skiing, being the first ski with a remarkable waist making it much easier for skiers to turn.
  • The Englishman William Cecil Slingsby, the "father of Norwegian mountaineering", helped inspire ski mountaineering after his crossing of the 1,550 m high (5,800 ft) Keiser Pass, Norway, on skis in 1880.
  • The gold mine owner Ignaz Rojacher from Rauris (Salzburg) and the German Wilhelm Ritter von Arlt brought the first pair of skis from Falun (Sweden) to Rauris in winter 1885/1886.
  • In 1888 the Austrian Max Kleinoschegg had his first attempts on skis on the Ruckerlberg near Graz.
  • Also in 1888, the Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen made the first crossing of Greenland, travelling from East to West on skis. The report on his expedition, Paa ski over Grønland, was published in 1890 in both Norwegian and English, and later in German. It aroused great interest in skiing in Europe and the United States, as well as creating a Norwegian national hero. From then on skiing was regularly in the news, and was soon adopted as a pastime and a sport by the wealthier classes of Europe, as well as being adopted by the military in several countries.
  • The first ski club in central Europe was founded at Munich, Germany, during the winter of 1890 to 1891.
  • In 1891 the Austrian hotelier Toni Schruf (in collaboration with Max Kleinoschnegg) ascended the Stuhleck (1782m) near Mürzzuschlag in the Semmering region, the first significant mountain in Austria which was ascended on skis.
  • The German Wilhelm Ritter von Arlt made the first ski ascent of over 3,000 m, when he climbed the Rauris Sonnblick (3,105 m / 10,187 feet high) in 1894. In doing so, he became the father of ski mountaineering. He was also the starter of summer skiing, for he took the first significant summer ski tour on August 30, 1897
  • The first ski tour in the Alps took place in 1894 when the local Branger brothers teamed up with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle--creator of Sherlock Holmes--for a traverse from Davos (Frauenkirch) to Arosa. Conan-Doyle was living in the area as his wife took the cure for TB. He ordered the skis from Norway & applied himself to learning to ski as a cure for his enforced idlement in the sleepy Alpine town.
  • In 1896 the German ski pioneer Wilhelm Paulcke ascended the Oberalpstock on his Norwegian skis. In 1897 he crossed the Bernese Oberland in Switzerland and skied to 4,200 m on Monte Rosa in 1898.
  • Dr. Hermann Seiler - President of the Monte Rosa section of the Swiss Alpine Club and coproprietor of the Seiler Hotels Zermatt - organizes the first ski training course that ever took place in Switzerland in January 1902. Capable students, the 12 guides ascend Cima di Jazzi on their fourth day (cf. Alpina,1 February 1902, Nr. 2, p. 35; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 8 February 1952, Nr. 282).
  • The first packaged ski holidays took place in 1903, to Adelboden, Switzerland, organised on a commercial basis by Sir Henry Lunn under the guise of the Public Schools Alpine Sports Club, which booked entire hotels. Winter holidays in Switzerland had become very popular with the British aristocracy since the first winter tourists to St Moritz in 1864.
  • A National Ski Tournament was held in Ishpeming, Michigan, in 1905, including a 393 ft (120 m)-high ski jump.
  • Competitive skiing in America was organized with the founding of the National Ski Association in Ishpeming, Mich. in February, 1905 (today known as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association
  • 1908, The first fully documented International Alpine Ski Carnival was held in Kiandra, Australia. The alpine downhill event was won by Charles Menger (Denver, USA), second was R. Paterson (Australia) third was Earl Prince (England). (Kiandra snow shoe club)[13]
  • In 1908 The Alpine Ski Club is founded by Arnold Lunn
  • The first purpose-built cable to pull skiers uphill was set up by Robert Winterhalder, a hotel owner in Schollach in Germany's Schwarzwald, in 1908. He took out a patent the following year. It was an overhead cable running on four or five wooden towers,powered by a water mill and later by an electric motor, itself powered by a small hydroelectric plant at the hotel. Cable run was 280 meters over a 32-meter vertical—about 100 feet. Skiers or tobogganers could grab a handle or harness.[14]
  • A major downhill ski race, the Roberts of Kandahar Cup took place in Crans-Montana (Crans-sur-Sierre) in 1911, organised by Arnold Lunn with the cup donated by Lord Roberts of Kandahar (Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts), a distinguished Field Marshal in the British Army.
  • 1924 saw the foundation of the International Ski Federation in Chamonix, France.
  • The Rottefella (rat trap) lightweight toe binding was invented by Bror With of Norway. The binding was a great success at the St. Moritz Olympics the following year, and has been, in various forms, the preferred cross country ski binding ever since.
  • In March 1928, downhill and the modern slalom events were combined for the first time to form the Arlberg-Kandahar open international alpine skiing competition, organised by Arnold Lunn and Hannes Schneider in St. Anton, Austria. This event was to become the real starting point of international Alpine ski racing.
  • At the invitation of the FIS, the Ski Club of Great Britain organised downhill and slalom races in parallel with the 1928 Second Winter Olympics at St Moritz.
  • In 1929, Orland Bartholomew skied alone over 300 miles (480 km) of California's High Sierras from Cottonwood Creek to Yosemite National Park roughly following the line of the summer route that is now known as the John Muir Trail. This included the first winter ascent of the highest peak in the lower 48, Mt. Whitney. Bartholomew sustained himself on the expedition using food caches placed over the summer.
  • The first resort-based ski school in the U.S. was opened in Sugar Hill, New Hampshire (at that time part of Lisbon) in 1929, by Katharine "Kate" Peckett, with her husband, Austrian immigrant ski instructor Sig Buchmayer. The same year, organized ski trains from Boston began running to the White Mountains of New Hampshire, where summer tourist trains had been going for decades.
  • Ski jumping and cross-country competition were events in the 1932 winter Olympics at Lake Placid, New York.
  • In 1931, Sir Arnold Lunn organised at Mürren the first World Championships in Downhill and Slalom Racing. He did the same in 1935, these being the only time in history that one country (Britain) has organised the World Championships of any sport on the territory of another country.
  • First rope-tow in America was developed in 1932, by Alex Foster and operated at Shawbridge, Quebec, using an old automobile with the rope looped around a wheel rim. Similar device copied and used in the U.S. in 1934, in Woodstock, Vermont.
  • First aluminum skis, 1934, France.
  • T-bar implemened at Davos in 1935, outgrowth of J-bar invented same year by Dartmouth Outing Club of Hanover, New Hampshire (first overhead-cable ski lift).
  • First heel-grip cable binding implemented in 1935 by Kandahar.
  • In December 1935 the Mt Baker Development Company began operating a cable-drawn sled called a "ski escalator" that carried skiers from Terminal Lake up Panorama Dome. Early in 1936, after the sled had been in operation less than a month, Arthur Brandlund, the developer of the lift, was killed in an avalanche that came off Panorama Dome.
  • Used as a summer get-away for early Mormons in Salt Lake City, Utah, Brighton Ski Area began in 1936 when members of the Alpine Ski Club built a rope tow from wire and an old elevator motor.
  • World's first overhead chairlift built at Sun Valley, Idaho, in 1936.
  • Third Winter Games of Olympics, at Garmisch 1936, include world's first alpine events: downhill and combined slalom.
  • First U.S. aerial tramway, installed at Cannon Mountain in 1938.
  • In late 1939, the USSR invaded its small north-western neighbor Finland. In the ensuing 3 and 1/2 months of intense combat known as the Winter War, Finnish ski troops all but annihilated a Soviet flanking manoeuver into northern Finland's forests. On long, narrow wooden skis, precursors to modern cross-country skis, the Finns surrounded unwieldy columns of ill-trained Soviet conscripts bogged down in the snow, overran and butchered them piecemeal. The invasion was thwarted; the Finns killed an estimated quarter of a million Red Army troops and wounded at least the same number. Finnish casualties totalled less than 10 percent of the Soviets'. The episode marked the largest-scale and most effective use of ski troops in history. It reinforced the arguments of US military skiing advocates just before America entered the war.
  • In 1943, President Roosevelt authorized the formation of the 10th Mountain Division. At the termination of WWII, 10th Mountain members returned to the States & become a major force in the development of U.S. downhill skiing. Some of the notable 10th Mountain veterans include:
  • Artificially made snow, 1952 at Grossinger's in New York. Other evidence suggests that Art Hunt, Wayne Pierce and Dave Richey of Connecticut built a snowmaking device, using compressed air and water, which they implemented in 1950; the first use of artificial snow was in 1950 at Mohawk Mountain Ski Area in Cornwall, Connecticut using a compressed air and water system developed by Walter R. Schoenknecht of Mohawk and Tey Manufacturing Company of Milford.
  • Fiberglass skis successfully marketed in 1960 by Kneissl, Plymold, Sailer.
  • At the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, American Billy Kidd won a silver medal in the alpine skiing slalom competition, the first alpine skiing medal ever by an American. With American Jimmy Huega capturing the Bronze medal in the same event, the United States experienced a boom in interest in alpine skiing and ski racing.
  • All-plastic boots introduced by Lange in 1964.
  • 2011 marks the 150th anniversary of Alpine Ski Clubs.

[edit] Ski racing

In his book from the 16th century, "Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus" (History of the Nordic Peoples), Olaus Magnus provided one of the first published descriptions of ski competitions.

Advertisement for ski race in La Porte, California (1869)

Newspaper records survive of downhill ski racing in California's mining camps as early as 1854 (Nevada Journal, 10 March 1854, cited in E. John B. Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 1993 University of Massachusetts .ress). "The first [ski race] clubs were formed in January 1861 at Onion Valley and La Porte." (ibid. p. 21) The first identifiable American ski club was formed in 1867.

Alpine downhill racing as an organised sport commenced in Australia.

“Early skiing in Kiandra also featured competition, in fact a type of competition that was far ahead of its time.”

“I would like to commend you for having organised the first Alpine ski races in the history of our sport.” International Ski Federation. 10th May 2011 Ref. [3]

At Kiandra, Australia, alpine skiing commenced in 1861, from the late 1880s and for the following twenty years, ladies’ downhill events were principally dominated by Barbara, Margaret and Mary Yan, the daughters of a Chinese man from the mountains of China and a lady from the Bavarian mountains in Germany. Barbara Yan won the "Downhill Alpine" event in August 1887. The results for children aged ten, are also recorded for the same year.[15]

Mr. Frank Yan won the 1896 major downhill event, and was presented with a gold fob and a pair of skis, 2740mm in length, by NSW Member of Parliament, Mr. G. Miller.[16]

In 1908, the first documented International and Intercontinental “Downhill Skiing Carnival” was held at Kiandra, Australia. The results were, (Winner) - Mr. Charles Menger, America. (Second) - Mr. R. Paterson, Australia. (Third) – Mr. Earl Prince, England.[17]


The British learned to ski in Norway or the Alps, or from friends who had leanerd there, or from how-to books (e.g. How to Ski by Henry Hoek translatation by Adelrich Benziger, 1910; Alpine Ski-ing by Arnold Lunn,1921; Ski-Running by Katharine Furse, 1924). The first known book written in English on how to ski is Crichton-Somerville, Rickmers and Richardson’s Ski Running, 1904.

The Roberts of Kandahar Challenge Cup, was run in 1911 at Montana, Switzerland. Contestants skied an unmarked course against the clock down the Plaine Morte Glacier over rough snow and enough natural hazards to prevent contestants from simply running straight like the longboarders. "The Kandahar" was thereafter (and still is) held annually at Mürren, Switzerland. Emphasis on the importance of the descent prevailed in British racing and in everyday skiing as well.

The second bud of alpine racing was invented by British ski mountaineer Arnold Lunn in January, 1922, on the grounds of the Palace Hotel in Mürren where he persuaded some friends to race through a series of paired short wands stuck in the snow. The race was against the stopwatch and without regard to form, in contrast to contemporary Swiss controlled course contests where form counted.

Lunn’s slalom cleverly played speed off against control. The delightful tension between these opposites made the race so intriguing that its popularity spread quickly. With slalom gaining popularity, it became possible to run alpine combined races, scoring slalom and downhill together, as jumping and cross country had been scored jointly for Nordic combined titles. In 1924, Lunn helped found Mürren’s Kandahar Ski Club to promote alpine combined racing.

In the 1920s, the popularity of alpine skiing began to rise, thanks to the spread of ski guides teaching the stem technique. One by one, alpine resort hotels and inns arranged to stay open in winter to accommodate a growing group of alpine skiers in places like Kitzbühel, St. Anton and St. Moritz.

[edit] Ski competition in America

The first known records of skiing in the United States are found in old California newspaper records. The records state that downhill ski racing in California's mining camps can be traced to as early as 1854. The oldest ski club in North America still existing is the Nansen Ski Club[18], which was founded in 1872 by Norwegian immigrants of the mill town of Berlin, New Hampshire under a different name[19].

Ski competition in America evolved in the late 19th century and was organized nationally with the founding of the National Ski Association in Ishpeming, MI in February, 1905, which today is the site of the National Ski Hall of Fame. The primary sport at the time was ski jumping, along with cross country skiing. Alpine skiing evolved later, as did modern day sports of freestyle skiing and snowboarding.

Today, the National Ski Association has evolved to become the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association, which manages all Olympic skiing and snowboarding competition programs in America.

[edit] Ski jumping

The first events where ski jumping was included were held in Tromsø, Norway in 1843. The first pure ski jumping event was held in Trysil on January 22, 1862. Later, the yearly Husebyrennene events in Oslo from 1879 were moved to Holmenkollen from 1892, and Holmenkollen was to become the center of ski jumping.

[edit] After WWII

[citation needed]

Through the 1950s and 60s skiing became a sport for a newly affluent middle class. Building on a European tradition of ski film-making dating back to Arnold Fanck in the 1920s, American film-makers like John Jay, Dick Durrance, Warren Miller and Dick Barrymore toured North America each fall promoting the sport in local theatres. In Europe, following a post-war boom in construction of hydroelectric dams, mountain communities promoted the construction of lifts and new hotels. Real-estate prices in ski resorts rose swiftly, driven by an average 15% annual growth until 1973. In that year, the OPEC oil embargo started a long series of economic recessions and inflation—the dreaded stagflation—that stalled the growth of the sport, especially in North America. By 1982, with interest rates running over 20%, most US factories were unable to finance summertime production; they either closed up shop or moved production to Europe. Resort companies began to consolidate, leading to the growth of large corporations like SKI, Intrawest, Aspen Ski Co., Vail Resorts, Resorts of the Canadian Rockies and Powdr Corp.[20]

The birth of competitive mogul skiing in the late 1960s led to freestyle: on-snow ballet, aerials & moguls grew to be considered legitimate types of competitive skiing. Some of these new ways of skiing emphasized style rather than the traditional speed. The International Ski Federation (FIS) recognised freestyle as a discipline in 1979 and brought in new regulations regarding certification of athletes and jump techniques in an effort to curb some of the dangerous elements of the competitions. The first FIS World Cup series was staged in 1980 and the first FIS World Championships took place in 1986 in Tignes, France, featuring moguls, aerials and ballet. Freestyle skiing, where skiers perform aerial manoeuvres while skiing downhill, was a demonstration event at the Winter Olympic Games in Calgary in 1988. Mogul skiing was added to the official programme of the Albertville Games in 1992 and Aerials were added at the Lillehammer Games in 1994.[21]

Telemark skiing was revived in the US in the 1970s as a way of getting into quiet, steeper mountain environments with no ski lift development. Much of the early telemark equipment was do-it-yourself, cobbled together using unlikely combinations like flimsy rat-trap cross-country bindings, hockey skate boots, Hexcel alpine skis. European randonnée equipment like the Silvretta cable binding and the Rossignol Haute Route ski were always available in the US, but eventually manufacturers like Chouinard Equipment, Ltd.--now Black Diamond Equipment, Ltd.--began importing more sophisticated gear specifically for telemark. By the 1990s they were designing their own, including innovative plastic telemark boots, cable bindings, dedicated stable yet lightweight backcountry skis & climbing skins. Randonnée or Alpine Touring (AT) equipment continued to come primarily from Europe, when it came at all. With the new, supportive equipment telemark racing & extreme competitions started.

The growth of snowboarding in the 1980s appealed to a new generation of skiers with its counter-culture fashion & far easier learning curve. This injection of new, enthusiastic participants increased ski resort business & reinvigorated ski equipment design, leading to fatter, more stable skis. As with all youth movements, new vocabulary was required for the same old activities & sliding over snow became known as "riding", even for skiers. Various forms of competition developed, including traditional gate racing, but also half-pipe tricks, boardercross & extreme backcountry competition.

[edit] Austrian ski pioneers

  • Mathias Zdarsky, the so-called "Father of Alpine Skiing", started skiing in 1890. He altered his Norwegian skis by shortening them and later on he invented the first alpine binding for his skis, which he called Lilienfelder binding.
In 1896 he published his first book on skiing technique. Zdarsky stemmed the downhill ski out, leaned inside to the pole, unweighted the inner ski and brought it parallel, he used rotation technique. He taught skiing and invented ski acrobatics.
The first slalom race was directed by Zdarsky and took place at Muckenkogel, Lilienfeld, in 1905.

[edit] See also

[edit] Norway

[edit] References

  1. ^ Rock drawing of an early skier
  2. ^ Olaus Magnus. 1555. "Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus" (History of the Nordic Peoples), published in Rome.
  3. ^ Fridtjof Nansen. 1961. På ski over Grønland.
  4. ^ Hartvig Birkely. 1994. I Norge har lapperne først indført skierne.
  5. ^ Svenska Akademien. 1971. Svenska Akademiens ordbok (SAOB)
  6. ^ http://www.skiinghistory.org/skitrains.html
  7. ^ http://members.ozemail.com.au/~sealark/index.html
  8. ^ http://members.ozemail.com.au/~sealark/early_members.html
  9. ^ Butte Record, Marysville, "Daily Appeal" 26th January 1861.
  10. ^ Manaro Mercury, 10th August, 1887.
  11. ^ The third anniversary program published La Porte newspaper 1869.(see photo, Ski Racing section).
  12. ^ http://www.thestormking.com/tahoe_nuggets/Nugget_170/nugget_170.html
  13. ^ http://members.ozemail.com.au/~sealark/index.html Melbourne Argus, Monday 6th June 1908
  14. ^ http://www.schollach.de/skilift.htm (German)
  15. ^ Manaro Mercury & Cooma & Bombala Advertiser -10th August,1887.
  16. ^ http://members.ozemail.com.au/~sealark/skiing_history.html
  17. ^ The Melbourne Argus, Saturday 6th July 1908.
  18. ^ "Union Leader - Nansen Ski Jump gets historical marker (seventh paragraph down)". http://www.unionleader.com/article/20111107/NEWHAMPSHIRE03/111109924. Retrieved December 9, 2011. 
  19. ^ "History of the Nansen Ski Club". http://www.skinansen.com/history.html. Retrieved December 9, 2011. 
  20. ^ (The preceding paragraph is an abstract of several articles from Skiing Heritage magazine, published quarterly by the International Skiing History Association—skiinghistory.org. Consult the magazine for attributions and bibliography.)
  21. ^ http://www.olympic.org

[edit] External links

[edit] U.S.

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