Holothuroidea

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Holothuroidea
A sea cucumber
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukarya
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Echinodermata
Subphylum:	Echinozoa
Class:	Holothuroidea de Blainville
Orders
Subclass Apodacea Apodida Molpadiida Subclass Aspidochirotacea Aspidochirotida Elasipodida Subclass Dendrochirotacea Dactylochirotida Dendrochirotida

Holothuroidea are a class of marine animals (phylum Echinodermata) with an elongated body and leathery skin, which is found on the sea floor worldwide. Many holothurian species and genera, informally known as sea cucumbers, are targeted for human consumption. The harvested product is also referred to as sea cucumber, or as trepang, bêche-de-mer, balate, or sea slug. The body contains a single, branched gonad.

Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers have an endoskeleton just below the skin, calcified structures that are usually reduced to isolated microscopic ossicles (or sclerietes) joined by connective tissue. These can sometimes be enlarged to flattened plates, forming an armour. In pelagic species such as Pelagothuria natatrix (Order Elasipodida, family Pelagothuriidae), the skeleton and a calcareous ring are absent^[1][2].

Contents 1 Overview 2 Holothurians as food and medicine 3 Commercial harvest 4 In art and literature 5 Captivity 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 Notes

[edit] Overview

Holothuroidea are generally scavengers, feeding on debris in the benthic zone of the ocean. Exceptions include pelagic cucumbers and the species Rynkatropa pawsoni, which has a commensal relationship with deep-sea anglerfish.^[3] The diet of most cucumbers consists of plankton and decaying organic matter found in the sea. Some sea cucumbers position themselves in currents and catch food that flows by with their open tentacles. They also sift through the bottom sediments using their tentacles. Sea cucumbers communicate with each other through sending hormone signals through the water which others pick up. A remarkable feature of these animals is the catch collagen that forms their body wall. This can be loosened and tightened at will, and if the animal wants to squeeze through a small gap, it can essentially liquefy its body and pour into the space. To keep itself safe in these crevices and cracks, the sea cucumber hooks up all its collagen fibres to make its body firm again.^[4]

Some species of coral-reef sea cucumbers within the order Aspidochirotida can defend themselves by expelling their sticky cuvierian tubules (enlargements of the respiratory tree that float freely in the coelom) to entangle potential predators. When startled, these cucumbers may expel some of them through a tear in the wall of the cloaca in an autotomic process known as evisceration. Replacement tubules grow back in one-and-a-half to five weeks, depending on the species.^[5] The release of these tubules can also be accompanied by the discharge of a toxic chemical known as holothurin, which has similar properties to soap. This chemical can kill any animal in the vicinity and is one more way in which these sedentary animals can defend themselves. ^[4]

They can be found in great numbers on the deep sea floor, where they often make up the majority of the animal biomass.^[6] At depths deeper than 5.5 mi (8.8 km), sea cucumbers comprise 90% of the total mass of the macrofauna^[7]. Sea Cucumbers form large herds that move across the bathygraphic features of the ocean, hunting food. The body of some deep water holothurians is made of a tough gelatinous tissue with unique properties that makes the animals able to control their own buoyancy, making it possible for them to either live on the ocean floor or to float over it to move to new locations with a minimum of energy.^[8], for instance Enypniastes eximia, Peniagone leander and Paelopatides confundens^[9].

In more shallow waters, sea cucumbers can form dense populations. The strawberry sea cucumber (Squamocnus brevidentis) of New Zealand lives on rocky walls around the southern coast of the South Island where populations sometimes reach densities of 1,000 animals per square metre. For this reason, one such area in Fiordland is simply called the strawberry fields.^[10]

Sea cucumbers extract oxygen from water in a pair of 'respiratory trees' that branch off the cloaca just inside the anus, so that they 'breathe' by drawing water in through the anus and then expelling it.^[11][12] A variety of fish, most commonly pearl fish, have evolved a commensalistic symbiotic relationship with sea cucumbers in which the pearl fish will live in sea cucumber's cloaca using it for protection from predation, a source of food (the nutrients passing in and out of the anus from the water), and to develop into their adult stage of life.

Many polychaete worms and crabs have also specialized to use the cloacal respiratory trees for protection by living inside the sea cucumber.^[13]

Ten percent of the blood cell pigment of the sea cucumber is vanadium. Just as the horseshoe crab has blue blood rather than red blood (colored by iron in hemoglobin) because of copper in the hemocyanin pigment, the blood of the sea cucumber is yellow because of the vanadium in the vanabin pigment^[14]. Nonetheless, there is no evidence that vanabins carry oxygen, in contrast to hemoglobin and hemocyanin.

Most sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing sperm and ova into the ocean water. Depending on conditions, one organism can produce thousands of gametes. An unusual sea cucumber found off the South African coast, the red-chested sea cucumber (Pseudocnella insolens), fertilises its eggs internally and then picks up the fertilised egg with one of its feeding tentacles. The egg is then inserted into a pouch on the adult's body, where it develops and eventually hatches from the pouch as a juvenile sea cucumber^[15].

The largest American species is Holothuria floridana, which abounds just below low-water mark on the Florida reefs.

Visitors to Guam often encounter the local variation, called balate, which litters the sea floor all around the island, including in water as shallow as 3 feet. These jet black sea cucumbers are normally 10-12 inches long, 1.5-2.0 inches in diameter and are often curled up, partially covered with sand from the sea floor.

The most common way to separate the subclasses is by looking at their oral tentacles. Subclass Dendrochirotacea has 8-30 oral tentacles, subclass Aspidochirotacea has 10-30 leaflike or shieldlike oral tentacles, while subclass Apodacea may have up to 25 simple or pinnate oral tentacles and is also characterized by reduced or absent tube feet, as in the order Apodida.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Holothurians as food and medicine

To supply the markets of Southern China, Macassan trepangers traded with the Indigenous Australians of Arnhem Land. This Macassan contact with Australia is the first recorded example of trade between the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours.^{[16][citation needed]}

There are many of commercially important species of sea cucumber that are harvested and dried for export for use in Chinese cuisine as Hoi sam. Some of the more commonly found species in markets include^[17]

• Holothuria scabra
• Holothuria fuscogilva
• Actinopyga mauritiana
• Stichius japonicus
• Parastichopus californicus
• Thelenota ananas
• Acaudina molpadioides

Some varieties of sea cucumber (known as gamat in Malaysia or teripang in Indonesia) are said to have excellent healing properties. There are pharmaceutical companies being built based on this gamat product. Extracts are prepared and made into oil, cream, or cosmetics. Some products are intended to be taken internally. The effectiveness of sea cucumber extract in tissue repair has been the subject of serious study.^[18] It is believed that the sea cucumber contains all the fatty acids necessary to play an active role in tissue repair.^[19]

On December 21, 2007, a study published in PLoS Pathogens found that a lectin from Cucumaria echinata impaired the development of the malaria parasite when produced by transgenic mosquitoes.^[20]

[edit] Commercial harvest

In recent years the sea cucumber industry in Alaska has gained strength due to increased export of the skins and muscles to China.^[21]

In China, many commercial sea cucumbers are farmed in artificial ponds. These ponds can be as large as 1,000 acres, and satisfy much of the local demand.^[21] Wild sea cucumbers are caught by divers and these wild Alaskan sea cucumbers have higher nutritional value and are larger than farmed Chinese sea cucumbers. Larger size and higher nutritional value has allowed the Alaskan fisheries to continue to compete for market shares, despite the increase in local, Chinese sea cucumber farming.^[21]

[edit] In art and literature

Sea cucumbers have inspired musical composition: in the first of his Embryons desséchés for piano solo, Erik Satie presents the "(Desiccated embryo) of a Holothurian" and inserts a description of the animal in the score:

The Holothurian crawls across boulders and rocky surfaces.

This sea-animal purrs like a cat; also, it produces disgusting silky threads.

Light appears to have an incommodating effect on it.

Nonetheless it is the sea cucumber's closest relative (the echinoidea or sea urchin) that gets the most attention from scientists, both as an embryo and as a fossil.

Sea cucumbers have also inspired thousands of haiku in Japan, where they are called namako (海鼠), written with characters that can be translated "sea mice". In English translations of these haiku, they are usually called "sea slugs"; according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "sea slug" originally referred to holothurians (in the 18th century), though biologists now use the name only for the nudibranch molluscs, marine relatives of land slugs. Almost 1,000 Japanese holothurian haiku translated into English appear in the book Rise, Ye Sea Slugs! by Robin D. Gill (Paraverse Press, 2003, ISBN 0-9742618-0-7).

[edit] Captivity

This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (August 2008)

Sea cucumbers are very common in marine reef aquaria, particularly in reef tanks, where they are prized for their unusual appearance and behavior. Care of sea cucumbers is not complex, but these unusual creatures have unusual requirements. In the hobby, the term sea cucumber refers to only the detrivore sea cucumbers, that is, those that subsist by consuming the detritus that accumulates on the substrate (such as sand or aragonite).

In particular, these creatures have the remarkable ability to live for months, often up to half a year, without feeding. It is very common for these creatures to be introduced into a system that can't support them, and for the owners to have no idea that they are slowly starving to death. When this happens, the sea cucumber will slowly shrink as it digests its own body mass to survive.

In order to be sure a cucumber is feeding one must watch it at work. It will use the feeding tentacles around its mouth to pick up and swallow sand from the bottom of the aquarium. Particles too big will be of no use to the cucumber, so it is important to watch it to make sure it's feeding, and that it's regularly producing castings of excreted substrate.

In addition to the unusual feeding requirements of sea cucumbers, they release highly toxic compounds when injured. In particular, the filter feeding sea cucumbers, known as "Sea Apples" in the aquarium trade, are exceedingly lethal to the other tank inhabitants should they be injured. All powerheads and pumps should be covered as the cucumbers can squeeze into spaces much smaller than their body. Should a sea apple become injured it must be immediately removed from the aquarium, a major water change needs to be performed, and fresh activated carbon will need to be added if there is to be any hope of saving the other inhabitants.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Gallery

Sea cucumber Euapta godeffroyi feeding at night.

Sea cucumber in Fiji

[edit] See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Holothuroidea

Wikispecies has information related to: Holothuroidea

• Trepanging
• Gamat

[edit] Notes

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