Homosexuality in China

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Young men sipping tea and having sex. Individual panel from a hand scroll on homosexual themes, paint on silk; China, Qing Dynasty (eighteenth to nineteenth centuries); Kinsey Institute, Bloomington, Indiana, United States

The situation of homosexuality in Chinese culture is relatively ambiguous in the contemporary context, although many instances have been recorded in the dynastic histories.

[edit] Terminology in China

In the old days, terms for homosexuality included "the passion of the cut sleeve" (断袖之癖, Mandarin, Pinyin: duànxiù zhī pǐ), and "the bitten peach" (分桃 Pinyin: fēntáo). Other, less obscure terms have included "male trend" (男風 Pinyin: nánfēng), "allied brothers" (香火兄弟 Pinyin: xiānghuǒ xiōngdì), and "the passion of Longyang" (龍陽癖 Pinyin: lóngyángpǐ), referencing a homoerotic anecdote about the Duke of Longyang in the Warring States Period.

The formal word for "homosexuality/homosexual(s)" is tongxinglian (同性戀, Pinyin: tóngxìngliàn, literally same-sex relations/love) or tongxinglian zhe (同性戀者, Pinyin: tóngxìngliàn zhě, homosexual people). Instead of this formal word, "tongzhi" (同志 Pinyin: tóngzhì), simply a head-rhyme word, is more commonly used in the gay community. Tongzhi (literally means 'comrade', and sometimes nü tongzhi, 女同志 Pinyin: nǚ tóngzhì, literally "female comrade") which was first adopted by Hong Kong researchers in Gender Studies, is used as slang in Mandarin Chinese referring to homosexuals, while in Cantonese gei1 (基), adopted from English gay, is used. "Gay" is sometimes considered to be offensive when used by heterosexuals or even by homosexuals in certain situations. Another slang term is boli (玻璃, Pinyin: bōli, crystal or glass), which is not so commonly used. Among gay university students, the acronym "datong" (大同, Pinyin: dàtóng, which also refers to utopia in Chinese) is becoming popular. Datong is short for daxuesheng tongzhi (university students [that are] homosexuals).

Lesbians usually call themselves lazi (拉子, Pinyin: lāzi) or lala (拉拉, Pinyin: lālā). These two terms are abbreviations of the transliteration of the English term "lesbian". These slang terms are also commonly used in Mainland China now.

[edit] Traditional views towards homosexuality in China's society

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A woman spying on a pair of male lovers

All major religions in ancient China have some sort of codex, which have traditionally been interpreted as being against exclusive homosexuality when it interferes with continuation of the family lineage. For example the Confucians have the codex that a man should behave according to somewhat traditional male gender roles and a woman likewise. So, for example, cross-dressing is a deed that is against the Confucian natural law.

There were some historical accounts of emperors who used to dress themselves in women's clothes, and this was always interpreted as an ill omen; and to beget children (especially sons) is a very important duty for a man in traditional Chinese society. So a man who only has male lovers is not dutiful. Taoism emphasizes maintaining the balance between Yin and Yang. A man-man relation is thought to be a Yang-Yang relation and so is imbalanced and destructive.

On the other hand, none of the major Chinese religions consider homosexual acts as sin as many Christian churches do. Compared to sin in Christian culture, the list of sinful deeds in the codex of Confucianism does not include homosexuality. As long as a man does his duty and sires children, it is his private affair to have other male lovers.

This is also true in Taoism. Although each man is regarded as yang (陽, masculine), every man also has some yin (陰, feminine) in him. Some men can have much yin in them. So the presence of some feminine behavior is not viewed as unnatural for men. In this view, homosexuals can even be regarded as something very natural, according to the natural balance of yin and yang. It is also remarkable that many Taoist gods and goddesses live alone or together with some equal deities of the same sex. The very common example is Shanshen (山神, mountain spirit) and Tudigong (土地公, "keeper of earth", i.e., local god). Every place has its Shanshen and Tudigong, and they sometimes live together. Shanshen and Tudigong are often both males (Tudigong is always a male). More intriguingly, they sometimes manifest themselves as an old man and an old woman (such appearances are described quite often in the classical novel Journey to the West). On top of this, the philosophy of Zhuangzi puts an emphasis on freedom and carefreeness, so anything that is seen as 'out of the ordinary' is really 'ordinary' according to the natural way of things.

[edit] Same-sex love in literature

Another remarkable thing is the prominence of friendship between men and between women in the ancient Chinese culture. There are many examples in the classic novels, especially in Water Margin, a book about very deep and long lasting male friendships. These bonds were based on revolutionary comradeship in war, instead of homosexuality. However, other works depict less platonic relationships. In the seminal novel Dream of the Red Chamber, there are examples of males engaging in both same-sex and opposite-sex acts.^[1] A good deal of ancient Chinese poetry was written in the female voice and portrayed semi-sexual relationships between teenaged girls, before they were pulled apart by marriage. Male poets would also use the female narrative voice to lament being abandoned by a male comrade or king.

There is also a tradition of erotic literature, which is less known as it is supposed that most such works have been purged in the periodic book burnings that have been a feature of Chinese history. However, isolated manuscripts have survived. Chief among these is the anthology "Bian er chai" (弁而釵，Pinyin: Biàn ér chāi), Cap but Pin, or A Lady's Pin under a Man's Cap, a series of four short stories in five chapters each, of passion and seduction. The first short story, Chronicle of a Loyal Love, involves a twenty-year-old academician chasing a fifteen-year-old scholar and a bevy of adolescent valets. In another, "Qing Xia Ji" (淸侠妓 Pinyin: Qīng xiá jì, Record of the Passionate Hero), the protagonist, Zhang, a valiant soldier with two warrior wives, is seduced by his younger friend Zhong, a remarkable arrangement as it is stereotypically the older man who takes the initiative with a boy. The work appeared in a single edition some time between 1630 and 1640.

More recently, Ding Ling (丁玲 Dīng Líng), an author of the 1920s in China, was a prominent and controversial feminist author, and it is generally agreed that she had lesbian (or at least bisexual) content in her stories. Her most famous piece is "Miss Sophia's Diary" (莎菲女士的日記 Pinyin: Shāfēi Nǚshì de rìjì), a seminal work in the development of a voice for women's sexuality and sexual desire. Additionally, a contemporary author, Huang Biyun (黄碧云, Pinyin: Huáng Bìyún, Cantonese: Wong Bikwan), writes from the lesbian perspective in her story "She's a Young Woman and So Am I" (她是女士，我也是女士 Pinyin: Tā shì nǚshì, wǒ yě shì nǚshì").

[edit] History

[edit] Ancient China

Young men engaged in erotic play; Hand scroll with homosexual theme, opaque watercolor on paper; Beijing, Qing Dynasty, late 19th c. Private collection

Homosexuality has been documented in China since ancient times. Two notable royal examples come from a formulaic expression, yútáo duànxiù (余桃断袖). Yútáo, or "the leftover peach", recorded in Hanfeizi, speaks of Mi Zixia (彌子瑕), a beautiful youth cherished by Duke Ling of Wei (衛靈公) who once shared an already bitten but very delicious peach with the duke, who appreciated the gesture (although once the growing Mi Zixia lost his beauty, the duke looked back on this event and said Mi was being insincere [1]). Duànxiù, or "breaking the sleeve", refers to Emperor Ai of Han's act of cutting his sleeve, on which his adored male concubine Dongxian (董賢) was sleeping, in order not to wake him.

Scholar Pan Guangdan (潘光旦) came to the conclusion that nearly every emperor in the Han Dynasty had one or more male sex partners. There are also descriptions of lesbians in some history books. It is believed homosexuality was popular in the Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties. Chinese homosexuals did not experience high-profile persecution compared to homosexuals in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages.

In some areas, same sex love was particularly appreciated. There was a running joke in the late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) that the province of Fujian was the only place where high class gentry and merchant love for male courtesans was prominent.^[2] However, writers from Fujian protested this stereotype; Xie Zhaozhe (1567–1624) wrote that "from Jiangnan and Zhejiang to Beijing and Shanxi, there is none that does not know of this fondness."^[2] Even the European Jesuit missionaries—such as Matteo Ricci (1552–1610)—took note of this and what they deemed "unnatural perversions", distressed over its often open and public nature.^[3] The historian Timothy Brook writes that this was not the only concern of the Jesuits, since "the celibate Jesuits were rich food for sexual speculation among the Chinese."^[3] Most homosexual behavior with a male courtesan or "singing boy" was associated with the luxurious and decadent behavior of the highest elite among the gentry and merchant classes.^[4] It is known that some of these men were not entirely homosexual, since some of them pursued their female maids as often as they did their serving boys.^[5]

The Qing official Zhu Gui (1731-1807), a grain tax circuit intendant of Fujian in 1765, intending to improve the moral shortcomings of the people under his jurisdiction, promulgated a "Prohibition of Licentious Cults," criticizing the respect the people of Fujian paid to such cults (yinci). One cult which he found particularly troublesome was the cult of Hu Tianbao. As he reports,

The image is of two men embracing one another; the face of one is somewhat hoary with age, the other tender and pale. [Their temple] is commonly called the small official temple. All those debauched and shameless rascals who on seeing youths or young men desire to have illicit intercourse with them pray for assistance from the plaster idol. Then they make plans to entice and obtain the objects of their desire. This is known as the secret assistance of Hu Tianbao. Afterwards they smear the idol's mouth with pork intestine and sugar in thanks.^[6]

Same-sex love was also celebrated in Chinese art, many examples of which have survived the various traumatic political events in recent Chinese history. Though no large statues are known to still exist, many hand scrolls and paintings on silk can be found in private collections[2].

In the year 1944, the scholar Sun Cizhou (孫次周) published a work stating that one of the most famous ancient Chinese poets, Qu Yuan, was a lover of his king. Sun cited the poetry of Qu Yuan (屈原) to prove his claim. In Qu Yuan's most important work Li Sao (Sorrow of parting), Qu Yuan called himself a beautiful man (or woman, 美人 Pinyin: měirén). A word he used to describe his king was used at that time by women to characterize their lovers.

The first law against male prostitutes in China went into effect during the Song dynasty. However, the law was not effectively enforced .The more devastating event for Chinese homosexuals was, ironically, the enlightenment that came after the Self-Strengthening Movement, when homophobia was imported to China along with Western science and philosophy.

[edit] Modern China

Activists Chen Yu-Rong and Wang Ping of the Gender/Sexuality Rights Association Taiwan

A notable change occurred during the late 1990s and early 2000s with the removal in 1997 of "hooliganism" from the criminal law, in effect a de facto decriminalization of homosexuality. In April 20, 2001, the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders formally removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses.^[7][8]

One of the first Hong Kong gay rights activists and writers to study the history of homosexuality in China was Xiaomingxiong (also known as Samshasha), author of the comprehensive "The History of Homosexuality in China" (1984).^[9] By the mid-1980s Chinese researchers on the mainland had begun investigating same-sex relationships in China. Some of the most notable work was conducted by sexologist Ruan Fangfu, who in 1991 published in English Sex in China: Studies in Sexology in Chinese Culture.^[10].

An Internet survey in 2000 showed that Chinese people are becoming more tolerant towards homosexuality: among the 10,792 surveyed, 48.15% were in favor, 30.9% disapproved, 14.46% were uncertain, and 7.26% were indifferent.^[8] Gay bashing is rare in modern China. Some scholars complain that the government is too indifferent on this issue, doing nothing to promote the situation of homosexuality in China. During the 2002 Gay Games, only 2 persons from the mainland were sent to take part, and apart from gay websites the media gave little coverage to the event. The authorities still refuse to promote either gay issues or gay rights in China. Although there is no explicit law against homosexuality or same-sex acts between consenting adults, neither are there laws protecting gays from discrimination, nor are there any gay rights organizations in China. It is believed that the Chinese policy towards the gay issue remains the "Three nos": no approval, no disapproval, and no promotion (不支持, 不反对, 不提倡).

A 2008 survey by sexologist Li Yinhe shows a mixed picture of public attitudes towards gays and lesbians in China. 91% of respondents said they agreed with homosexuals having equal employment rights, while over 80% of respondents agreed that heterosexuals and homosexuals were "equal individuals". On the other hand, a slight majority disagreed with the proposition that an openly-gay person should be a school teacher, and 40% of respondents said that homosexuality was "completely wrong".^[11]

The number of homosexuals in China remains unclear. One statement based on Chinese government documents and academic studies states that the figure is 15 million. An official statistic, as quoted in a news report in China Daily, put the figure for mainland China at "approximately 30 million" (2.3% of the population), though it admitted many Chinese would not openly declare their sexual orientation.^[12] Compared to the higher proportions of homosexuals in other countries, many find these figures unconvincing.^[13]

The loosening of restrictions on Internet use has resulted in a blossoming of gay websites in mainland China, even though the police sometimes intervene and shut down such websites. The Internet has been very important to the mainland Chinese gay community. Although there are no gay organizations in mainland China, there are some organized Internet sites that function as advisory institutions.

The mainstream media sometimes cover notable gay events abroad, such as pride parades. Some critics charge that the purpose of the media is mostly to smear homosexuality. Lacking a film rating system, the Chinese government forbids gay movies to be shown on TV or in theaters because they are "inappropriate". Despite having received much attention in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and other places, the gay-themed movie Lan Yu is still forbidden in the mainland China (the film also features references to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989) although the actors are all Mainlanders, and the story is based on a quite popular Internet story written by a mainland netizen (a heavily edited version of the film was released on DVD for the mainland). New Western films like Brokeback Mountain in 2006, were denied release in the mainland, even though there was an overall public interest as the film was directed by Ang Lee.

Although more prominent in first-tier Chinese cities like Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen, gay clubs, bars, tea houses, saunas, and support centers are also becoming more widespread in second-tier cities like Xi'an, Dalian, and Kunming. Occasionally, these locations are subject to police harassment. Similar to the development of the gay scene in other countries, other less formal 'cruising spots' exist in parks, public washrooms, malls, and public shower centers. Being gay is particularly difficult in the countryside; in China this is especially severe as the vast majority of people live in the countryside with no Internet access and no possibility to move to a city. Country dwellers do not often speak of homosexuality, and when they do, it is usually considered a disease.^[14]

Many cases show that gay people still have to endure prejudice from the justice system and harassment from police, including detention and arrest. In October 1999, a Beijing court ruled that homosexuality was "abnormal and unacceptable to the Chinese public",^[15] which was the first time this official attitude was stated openly. Another notable case happened in July 2001, when at least 37 gay men were detained in Guangdong. In late April 2004, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (国家广播电影电视总局) has initiated a campaign to clear violence and sexual content from the media. Programmes related to homosexual topic, scene, or language are considered to be "going against the healthy way of life in China", and are banned.

As early as 2004 and having seen rapid rises in HIV infection among gay and bisexual men in other Asian countries, provincial and city level health departments began HIV related research among men who have sex with men (MSM). In January 2006 the State Council of the People's Republic of China issued Regulations on AIDS Prevention and Treatment. The document specifically mentioned MSM as a population that is vulnerable to HIV infection and directed officials and organizations on every level to include MSM in HIV prevention activities. In April 2008, under the direction of the National Center for HIV/AIDS, 61 cities in China initiated community based studies of MSM and their potential risk for becoming infected with HIV. Concurrent to these studies, HIV prevention programs were initiated in those same cities using a peer led intervention model.^[16]

[edit] Same-sex marriage in China

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During the evaluation of the amendment of the marriage law in the Chinese mainland in 2003, there was the first discussion about same-sex marriage. Though this issue was rejected, this was the first time that an item of gay rights was discussed in China. However, just not long before the new marriage law went into effect, an officer stated in a press conference that same-sex marriage is still forbidden in China, on August 19, 2003.

Li Yinhe (李銀河), a sociologist and sexologist well-known in the Chinese gay community, has tried to legalize same-sex marriage several times, including during the National People's Congress in 2000 and 2004 (Legalization for the Chinese Same-Sex Marriage, 《中国同性婚姻合法化》 in 2000 and the Chinese Same-Sex Marriage Bill, 《中国同性婚姻提案》 in 2004). According to Chinese law, 35 delegates' signatures are needed to make an issue a bill to be discussed in the Congress. Her efforts failed due to lack of support from the delegates. Many scholars as well as gay and lesbians believe it will be difficult to pass such a law in China in the near future.

During the 2006 National People's Congress and again in 2007, Li proposed the same-sex marriage bill again. Some gay web sites called for their members to sign petitions in support of this bill. This bill was dismissed both times.

[edit] Hong Kong

[edit] Macau

Same sex marriage is not legal in Macau, but otherwise homosexuality is not addressed by law.

[edit] Slang in contemporary Chinese gay culture

The following terms are not standard usage, rather they are colloquial and used within the gay community.

[edit] Culture

[edit] People

The following are prominent Mainland Chinese and Taiwanese people who have come out to the public or are actively working to improve gay rights in Mainland China and Taiwan:

• Leslie Cheung (bisexual or gay singer and actor from Hong Kong - died 2003)
• Pai Hsien-yung (gay writer from Taiwan)
• Li Yinhe (the well known scholar on sexology in China)
• Josephine Ho (researcher and political activist in Taiwan)
• Siu Cho (researcher and political/ social activist in Hong Kong)

[edit] Movies and TV series

Many gay movies or TV series have been made in Hong Kong, Taiwan and mainland China, including:

• Bishonen (HK)
• Buffering (HK)
• Butterfly (HK)
• Crystal Boys (Taiwan)
• East Palace, West Palace (China)
• Eternal Summer (Taiwan)
• Farewell My Concubine (China)
• Fleeing by Night (Taiwan) [3]
• Formula 17 (Taiwan)
• Happy Together (HK)
• I Am Not What You Want (HK)
• Lanyu (China)
• Spider Lilies (Taiwan)
• Tongzhi in Love (documentary film, China/US, 2008)
• The Wedding Banquet (Taiwan)

[edit] See also

Shanghai_Pride 2009 First Event Queer representation on Chinese Film - Cui Zi En 崔子恩 Recognition of same-sex unions in the People's Republic of China Transgender in China Gender/Sexuality Rights Association Taiwan Human rights in the People's Republic of China LGBT themes in Chinese mythology and folklore

Homosexuality in India LGBT in Japan LGBT in Singapore LGBT in the Philippines LGBT rights in Taiwan

LGBT portal

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0 (Paperback).
• Szonyi, Michael. "The Cult of Hu Tianbao and the eighteenth-Century Discourse of Homosexuality." Late Imperial China (Volume 19, Number 1, June 1998): 1–25.

[edit] Further reading

• Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: LGBT in China

• GayChina.com
• Civil Rights for Sexual Diversities (CR4SD) A rights advocacy group based in Hong Kong
• CSSSM (Chinese Society for the Study of Sexual Minorities)
• Center for the Study of Sexualities at National Taiwan Central University
• Manifesto of 1996 Chinese Tongzhi Conference
• A piece of news about tongzhi in Hong Kong
• Chinese Tradition of Male Love
• Male Love Art from Ancient China
• First Chinese website to provide gay information in Hong Kong
• Gay rights in 90s China:Paper Presented at the Human Rights Forum on People's Summit on APEC, November, 1997
• Lesbian information for China
• The Plight of Gays in China
• Comrades-in-arms: Gay rights in China - The long march out of the closet, The Economist, Jun 18th 2009