Hope

For other uses, see Hope (disambiguation).

Allegory of hope; Oil on canvas, Francesco Guardi, 1747

Hope is the state which promotes the belief in a good outcome related to events and circumstances in one's life. Despair is often regarded as the opposite of hope. Hope is the "feeling that what is wanted can be had or that events will turn out for the best" or the act of "look[ing] forward to something with desire and reasonable confidence" or "feel[ing] that something desired may happen". Other definitions are "to cherish a desire with anticipation"; "to desire with expectation of obtainment"; or "to expect with confidence". In the English language the word can be used as either a noun or a verb, although hope as a concept has a similar meaning in either use.

In leadership

Leadership- Napoleon Bonaparte said, “A leader is a dealer in hope.”

Robert Mattox, social activist and futurist, proposes a social change theory based on the hope phenomenon. There is significant research on the ability of leadership to effect change, but little research exists that examines the conditions of leadership necessary to initiate and successfully lead change.

Many leadership theories presuppose that an individual who does the right things will be an effective leader. Dr. Larry Stout postulates that certain conditions must exist before even the most talented leaders can lead change. Dr. Stout highlights four conditions necessary to lead change:

1. people (who) 2. place (where) 3. position (what) 4. period (when) If a leader has a green light in all four conditions, they will be able to lead change.

Considering these leadership conditions among other macro social change drivers, Robert Mattox proposes a change management theory. Dealers in Hope explores four leadership profiles- Steve Jobs, Barack Obama, Mike Morhaime, and the historical figure Moses who succeeded or failed to lead change based on whether or not they were a dealer in hope. Robert Mattox prescribes how a leader can lead change and shape culture within their community or organization by creating a hopescape and harnessing the hope system- illustrated using a “hope diamond” metaphor (from coal to diamond process).

In psychology

Dr. Barbara L. Fredrickson, Principal Investigator of the Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Lab and Professor at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, argues that hope "...comes into play when our circumstances are dire", when "things are not going well or at least there’s considerable uncertainty about how things will turn out". She states that "[h]ope literally opens us up...[and] removes the blinders of fear and despair and allows us to see the big picture [, thus allowing us to] become creative" and have "[b]elief in [a] better future".

"Psychologist, C.R. Snyder and his colleagues say that hope is cultivated when we have a goal in mind, determination that a goal can be reached, and a plan on how to reach those goals". Hopeful people are "like the little engine that could, [because] they keep telling themselves "I think I can, I think I can".

Hope is distinct from positive thinking, which refers to a therapeutic or systematic process used in psychology for reversing pessimism. The term "false hope" refers to a hope based entirely around a fantasy or an extremely unlikely outcome.

History of hope

Alfred Adler said: “We cannot think, feel, will, or act without the perception of a goal”

Hope can first be seen in ancient Greek mythology with the story of Zeus and Prometheus. Prometheus stole fire from the god Zeus, which infuriated the supreme god. In turn, Zeus created a box that contained all manners of evil, unbeknownst to the receiver of the box. Pandora opened the box after being warned not to, and those evils were released into the world; hope, which lay at the bottom of the box, remained. This is the beginning of the tale of hope.

Understanding hope

Das Prinzip Hoffnung (de) Auschwitz, a rose expressing hope

Charles Snyder, Ph.D, one of the first developers of positive psychology, embellished upon the overlaying topic of “hope” relaying its subject matter within a psychological construct. Snyder created his “hope theory” while on sabbatical from the University of Kansas. Instead of finding evidence in a book in the library, he was inspired to observe people and interact with them. Through his observations, Snyder was able to determine his own definition of "hope"; “Hope is the sum of the mental willpower and waypower that you have for your goals” Snyder continues his definition with these 3 underlying concepts:

• Goals: “Goals are objects, experiences, or outcomes that we imagine and desire in our minds." Snyder determines that “the goals involving hope fall somewhere between an impossibility and a sure thing.”

• Willpower: “Willpower is the driving force in hopeful thinking” (pg.9) Willpower draws on the perception of our desired goal as well as one’s mental energy. It also depends on how well we understand our goal. Within psychotherapy, techniques are used to home in on one’s desires and wishes, on how to focus on our goals, on how to obtain or attain them, “…based on tacit knowledge."

• Waypower: “Waypower reflects the mental plans or road maps that guide hopeful thought” There are important versus less important goals that play a part in one’s ability to plan through a goal, to map out a plan. Snyder says that hope is the “mental willpower and waypower for goals” Research has found that “persons with willpower thinking may not have waypower thoughts to their goals”.

Measuring hope

Several researchers, after defining their concept of hope, have devised ways of how to measure the actual psychological construct. Snyder’s proposed “Hope Scale” measures a person’s intended succession in congruence to their goals. Overall, their determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope.

Fibel and Hale measure hope by combining Snyder’s Hope Scale with their own Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale (GESS) to empirically measure hope.

In Snyder’s book, “Hope Theory”, a differentiation between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope is given. The adult Hope Scale by Snyder contains 12 questions; 4 measuring ‘pathways thinking’, 4 measuring ‘agency thinking’, and 4 that are simply fillers. Each subject responds to each question using an 8-point scale.

Hope versus optimism

The difference between hope and optimism: hope entails pathways and thoughts to an intended goal. Optimism leads one to “expect the best, but it does not necessarily provide any critical thinking about how we are going to arrive at this improved future”.

Snyder says that “we can best understand emotion and self-esteem as a by-product of how effective we are in the pursuit of goals”.

Dr. Barbara Frederickson states that, “Because positive emotions arise in response to diffuse opportunities, rather than narrowly focused threats, positive emotions momentarily broaden people’s attention and thinking, enabling them to draw on higher-level connections and a wider-than-usual range of percepts or ideas through cognitive, psychology, physical, or social resources”. Frederickson is explaining hope in a moment of great need. With the sense of hope come positive emotions such as happiness and joy, courage, and empowerment. She describes these “positive emotions” as coming from four different areas of one’s self: from a cognitive, psychological, social, or physical perspective.

In philosophy

Contemporary Philosopher Richard Rorty understands hope as more than goal setting. Hope assumes a metanarrative, a story that serves as a promise or reason for expecting a better future. Rorty believes the Christian story and Marxism both proved to be false hopes because neither delivered. Jesus Christ promised to return but he hasn't. Communism promised equality for all but the economic system folded. Rorty says a new document of promise is needed for social hope to exist again.

As a literary concept

Hope is a common theme in cultural works across the world, and has a strong place in both classical and contemporary western literature as well as in works of world literature.

A classic reference which has generally entered modern language is the concept that "Hope springs eternal" taken from Alexander Pope's Essay on Man, the phrase reading "Hope springs eternal in the human breast, Man never is, but always to be blest:" Another popular reference, "Hope is the thing with feathers," is from a poem by Emily Dickinson.

Hope is a key concept in many classic and contemporary fictional works. It can be used as a plot device and is often a motivating force for change in dynamic characters. A commonly understood reference from western popular culture is the subtitle "A New Hope" from the original first installment (now considered Episode IV) in the Star Wars science fiction space opera. The subtitle refers to one of the lead characters, Luke Skywalker, who is expected in the future to allow good to triumph over evil within the plot of the films.

Symbolism

The anchor symbolises hope. This is because a seaman's last resort would be putting the anchor down. A dove also symbolises hope.

In religion

Hope is a key concept in most major world religions, often signifying the "hoper" believes an individual or a collective group will reach a concept of heaven.

In Christianity

Main article: Hope (virtue)

"In many traditional Christian texts, the word is an indication of certainty and a positive expectation of future reward. “Hope” in the Holy Bible means “a strong and confident expectation.” Though archaic today in modern terms, hope is akin to trust and a confident expectation". The author of the book of Romans, Paul the Apostle, argued that hope was a source of salvation for Christians. Romans 8:24-25 states "For in hope we have been saved, but hope that is seen is not hope; for why does one also hope for what he sees? 25 But if we hope for what we do not see, with perseverance we wait eagerly for it".

According to the Holman Bible Dictionary, hope is a "[t]rustful expectation, particularly with reference to the fulfillment of God's promises. Hope, is the anticipation of a favorable outcome under God's guidance[;]... the confidence that what God has done for us in the past guarantees our participation in what God will do in the future.

The concept is considered one of the three theological virtues of the Christian religion. "Hope is an essential and fundamental element of Christian life, so essential indeed, that, like faith and love, it can itself designate the essence of Christianity".

See also

• Chance (philosophy)
• Disappointment
• Fear
• Optimism
• Philosophy of happiness
• Positive psychology
• The Principle of Hope
• John D. Caputo

Further reading

• Averill, James R. Rules of hope. Springer-Verlag, 1990.
• Mattox, Robert. Dealers in Hope: How to Lead Change and Shape Culture. Lulu Press, 2012.
• Miceli, Maria and Cristiano Castelfranchi. "Hope: The Power of Wish and Possibility" in Theory Psychology. April 2010 vol. 20 no. 2 251-276.
• Kierkegaard, Søren A. The Sickness Unto Death. Princeton University Press, 1995.
• Snyder, C. R. The psychology of hope: you can get there from here. Simon and Schuster, 1994.
• Snyder, C. R. Handbook of hope: theory, measures, & applications. Academic [Press], 2000.
• Stout, Larry. Ideal Leadership: Time for a Change. Destiny Image, 2006