Korean martial arts

Not to be confused with Muhan Dojeon.

Students from a Korean martial arts school in Calgary do a demonstration

Korean martial arts (Hangul: 무술 or 무예, Hanja: 武術 or 武藝) are the martial arts that originated from Korea. Some well known Korean martial arts are hapkido, kuk sool won, and taekwondo. There has also been a revival of Korean sword arts as well as knife fighting and archery. In modern times, Korean martial arts are being practiced worldwide.

History

Early history

Further information: Subak and Taekkyeon

Wrestling, called ssireum, is the oldest form of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, it was also popular among villagers during festivals. Koreans, as with the neighbouring Mongols, relied more heavily on bows and arrows in warfare than they did on close-range weapons.

It appears that during the Goguryeo dynasty, (37 BC – 668) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced. Paintings showing martial arts were found in 1935 on the walls of royal tombs, believed to been built for Goguryeo kings, sometime between 3 and 427^{[citation needed]}. Which techniques were practiced during that period is however something that cannot be determined from these paintings. References to subak can be found in government records from the Goguryeo dynasty through the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910)^{[citation needed]}.

It is believed that the warriors from the Silla Dynasty (57 BC-668 AD) learned subak from the neighboring Goguryeo armies when they appealed for their help against invading Japanese pirates^{[citation needed]}. Practicing subak became part of the training for Silla's hwarang, and this contributed to the spread of subak on the Korean peninsula^{[citation needed]}. But again, it is not known exactly which techniques the hwarang practiced. Buddhist monks, who added more spiritual aspects to the art, often instructed the hwarang^{[citation needed]}. Their greatest contribution to the development of Korean martial arts is probably adding a spiritual dimension to the training practices, something that Korean martial arts lacked before^{[citation needed]}.

The Buddhist influence on the hwarang is most notably seen around 600 AD when the moral code Sae Sok O-Gye (세속오계), written by Won Kwang (원광, 圓光), consisting of five rules were documented:

• 사군이충 / 事君以忠 – Loyalty to one's king.
• 사친이효 / 事親以孝 – Respect to one's parents.
• 교우이신 / 交友以信 – Faithfulness to one's friends.
• 임전무퇴 / 臨戰無退 – Courage in battle.
• 살생유택 / 殺生有擇 – Justice in killing.

Dae Kwae Do

The development of subak continued during the Goryeo Dynasty (935–1392)^{[citation needed]}. Goryeo records that mention the martial arts always include passages about subak^{[citation needed]}. The Goryeo government, however, outlawed the practice of subak by civilians because people used to bet at subak games^{[citation needed]}.

Subak eventually divided into two separate martial arts, taekgyeon (택견) and yusul (유술), probably in the last years of the Goryeo Dynasty or the early years of the Joseon Dynasty^{[citation needed]}. It is believed that many techniques were lost at this time. Joseon Dynasty records and books often mention taekgyeon, and taekgyeon players are portrayed on several paintings from that era. The most famous painting is probably the Daegwaedo (Hangul: 대괘도, Hanja: 大快圖), painted in 1846 by Hyesan Yu Suk (혜산 유숙, 1827–1873), which shows men competing in both ssireum (씨름) and taekgyeon.

Joseon era manuals

During the Imjin War (1592–1598), Korean armies fought off a Japanese invasion. The Japanese had imported guns from Portugal and wanted to conquer the mainland. With Chinese assistance, the Koreans turned back the invaders, but with heavy loss of men and cultural heritage. It was also during this war that the famous turtle ships (Geobukseon, 거북선) were used by Admiral Yi Sun-sin. These ships were covered with metal shields, much like the shell of a turtle, which could withstand the gun attacks of the Japanese. This was the first iron armoured ship in naval history.

In 1593, Korea received help from China to win back Pyongyang. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled Ji Xiao Xin Shu (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist Qi Jiguang. King Seonjo (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the Muyejebo (무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the Muyesinbo (Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).

In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated Muyedobotongji (Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to taekyeon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on. The chapter that deals with a style of empty-handed fighting called kwonbeop ("fist methods," a generic name for empty-handed combat; the word is the Korean pronunciation of quanfa) shows techniques that resemble Chinese martial arts—quite different from taekgyeon. According to the Muyedobotongji, empty-handed combat should be learned before armed combat, since it forms the basis of a martial education^{[citation needed]}. It also states that internal styles are better suited for fighting than external styles^{[citation needed]}, which is remarkable since Koreans never developed their own internal systems until then^{[citation needed]}. The interest in Korean martial arts began to decline during the later Joseon Dynasty, under the influence of Neo-Confucianism, and it was only because of the Muyedobotongji and the interest the common people had in traditions like taekgyeon that these traditions managed to survive. The name for the martial arts of the Muyedobotongji is shippalgi.

Modern Korean martial arts

Native Korean martial arts were banned during the period of Japanese occupation but survived through underground teaching and folk custom. After the occupation ancient books like the Muyedobotongji became popular study material for Korean martial artists, and influenced the development of many modern Korean fighting styles^{[citation needed]}.

Ancient manuals like the Muyedobotongji became popular reading and study material for Korean martial artists and influenced the development of many modern Korean martial arts. For example, Koreans who had practiced Japanese kendo during the colonization period studied the Muyedobotongji to rediscover their own cultural heritage and recreated the traditional Korean martial arts, although this usually was nothing more than renaming techniques after those found in the Muyedobotongji. In this process the Muyedobotongji more than once was used unjustly as a link to Korea’s ancient martial heritage^{[citation needed]}.

This does not mean that Korean martial arts from before the occupation completely disappeared. Masters of several styles survived the occupation or continued teaching their art even though the Japanese had put a ban on it. Taekgyeon had survived as a folk game and has grown in popularity in recent years. Also the techniques of the Muyedobotongji have survived the occupation and martial arts like shippalgi enjoy a renewed interest^{[citation needed]}.

It should also be considered that Korean martial arts are still in a state of evolution as witnessed by recently emerging arts such as Tukong/Teukong Moosul and Youngmudo^{[citation needed]}. There is now also the development of Korean arts influenced by Western boxing, Muay Thai or Judo, these would include Gongkwon Yusul and Kyuktooki^{[citation needed]}.

It is also important to note that speaking about martial arts in terms of them being Chinese, Japanese or Korean is something that is from recent times and has grown this way under the influence of nationalistic views^{[citation needed]}.

Types of Korean martial arts

Taekkyeon/Taekgyeon

Main article: Taekkyeon

The oldest Korean martial art was an amalgamation of unarmed combat styles developed by the three rival Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla and Baekje. Young men were trained in unarmed combat techniques to develop strength, speed, and survival skills. The most popular of these techniques was subak, with taekkyeon being the most popular of the segments of subak^{[citation needed]}.

As the Goguryeo kingdom grew in power, the neighboring Silla kingdom became comparatively weaker, and an effort was undertaken among the Silla to develop a corps of special warriors. The Silla had a regular army but its military training techniques were less advanced than those of the Goguryeo, and its soldiers were generally of a lesser caliber. The Silla selected young men, some as young as twelve, and trained them in the liberal arts. Those who demonstrated strong natural aptitude were selected as trainees in the new special warrior corps, called the hwarang. It was believed that young men with a talent for the liberal arts may have the grace to become competent warriors. These warriors were instructed in academics as well as martial arts, learning philosophy, history, a code of ethics and equestrian sports. Their military training included an extensive weapons program involving swordsmanship and archery, both on horseback and on foot, as well as lessons in military tactics and unarmed combat. Although subak was leg-oriented in Goguryeo, Silla's influence added hand techniques to the art .

In spite of Korea's rich history of ancient and traditional martial arts, Korean fighting methods faded into obscurity during the Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism and martial arts were lowly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-kings. Remnants of traditional martial arts like subak and taekkyeon were banned from practice by the general populace and reserved for sanctioned military uses although folk practice by the common populace still persisted into the 19th century^{[citation needed]}. .

Although the art nearly vanished, taekkyeon survived through underground teaching and folk custom. The Japanese colonial government totally prohibited all folkloric games including takkyon in the process of suppressing the Korean people.^{[citation needed]} Taekkyeon had been secretly handed down only by the masters of the art until the liberation of the country in 1945. Song Duk-ki, one of the then masters, was still alive at the age of over 80 and testified that his master was Im Ho who was reputed for his excellent skills of Taekkyeon, "jumping over the walls and running through the wood just like a tiger." Also noteworthy was the use of the term "pum" which signified a face-to-face stance preparing for a fight. The masters of Taekkyeon were also under constant threat of imprisonment, which resulted in an eventual cessation of Taekkyeon as popular games.

Taekkyeon has had a slight resurgence in recent days, getting the classification Important Intangible Cultural Properties of Korea No. 76" on June 1, 1983. It is the only Korean martial art which possesses such a classification.

Hapkido arts

Main article: Hapkido

Originally an ancient Silla martial art^{[citation needed]}but later named Hapkido by Choi Yong Sul who returned from Japan after World War II and started teaching a martial art he claimed to have learned from Sokaku Takeda. He called his style Yawara [柔], but it was later renamed to Hapki Yusul [合氣 柔術] and again renamed to Hapkido [合氣道]. Students of Choi Yong Sul, such as Ji Han Jae, helped to spread this art. Hapkido helped to revitalize traditional Korean martial arts by providing systemization and becoming incorporated into other styles. This process complemented modern Korean martial arts like Kuk Sool Won, Han Mu Do and Hwarangdo.

Weapon arts

Please see Kumdo and Gungdo

Revived arts

There are also many modern Korean martial arts that are recompilations or reorganizations of techniques from traditional or imported arts. Some relied on manuals like the Muyejebo and Muyedobotongji. Many of these arts visually appear to have more of a Chinese influence than other Korean martial arts, except for taekgyeon^{[citation needed]}.

Additionally, it is not clear who created these arts in the first place in their most ancient form—often, exponents of Korean martial arts argue that Korea in fact created these arts in ancient times, which then passed over to Japan, and then were later re-imported back to Korea^{[citation needed]}. Historically, many cultural features, including Chinese calligraphy, Buddhism, pottery techniques, city design, and political systems, were transmitted from China to Korea, and in modified form, retransmitted to Japan, which further modified them^{[citation needed]}. As with other adjacent cultures, constant borrowings and adaptations in various directions make claims of origin very difficult to prove^{[citation needed]}.

The Korean martial arts that may today be viewed as being traditional (as opposed to modern Korean martial arts) are taekgyeon and a handful of others including gwonbeop, subyokchigi, subak, ssireum, and various weapon-based styles^{[citation needed]}. Taekgyeon is the only Korean martial art that received the status of 'intangible cultural asset' (no. 76) from the Korean government.

Teaching methods

Modern Korean martial arts' systemization and presentation are very similar to their Japanese counterparts (i.e., barefoot, with uniforms, classes executing techniques simultaneously following the teacher's commands, and sometimes, showing respect to portraits of the founder by bowing to the picture or national flags). Many modern Korean martial arts also make use of colored belts to denote rank, tests to increase in rank, and the use of Korean titles when denoting the teacher^{[citation needed]}. These include:

• Kyosanim: teacher.
• Sabeomnim (사범님 / 師範님): Master instructor.
• Kwanjangnim (관장님 / 館長님): training hall owner/ kwan leader.
• Dojunim (도주님 / 道主님): keeper of the way.

These Korean terms are based on Confucian rank systems (with the same Chinese characters). Many schools also make use of Korean terminology and numbers during practice.

Terminology

Korean martial arts are usually practiced in a dojang (도장), which may also be referred to as cheyukkwan (체육관 / 體育館, i.e., gymnasium). The practitioners wear a uniform or dobok (도복) with a belt or tti (띠) wrapped around it. This belt usually shows which grade the practitioner has attained. A student usually starts with a white belt and moves through a range of colored belts (which differ from style to style) before reaching the black belt. The grades before black belt are referred to as geup or kup (급), while the grades of black belts are referred to as dan (단). In some cases, students less than 16 years old are not given dan grades, but rather "pum" or poom (품) or "junior black belt" grades. Some styles use stripes on the black belt to show which dan the practitioner holds. It is common for a system to have nine geup grades and nine dan grades. While it might only take a few months to go from one geup to the next, it can take years to go from one dan to the next. Most of the above terms are identical to those used in Japanese styles such as judo and karate, but with the Chinese characters read in Korean pronunciation, with a few exceptions (dobok and tti have been altered to fit the Korean language).

In some styles, like taekgyeon, the hanbok is worn instead of a dobok. The v-neck of many styles of taekwondo uniform was supposedly fashioned after the hanbok.

References

Further reading

• Adrogué, M. (2003). "Ancient military manuals and their relation to modern Korean martial arts". Journal of Asian Martial Arts 12: 4. 
• Della Pia, J. (1994). "Korea's Mu Yei Do Bo Tong Ji.". Journal of Asian Martial Arts 3: 2. 
• Henning, S. (2000). "Traditional Korean martial arts". Journal of Asian Martial Arts 9: 1. 
• Kim, S. H. (2001): Muye Dobo Tongji. Turtle Press.