Law of India
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Law of India Administration
Civil courts
Criminal courts
Executive Court
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Legal education
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Law of India refers to the system of law in modern India. It is largely based on English common law because of the long period of British colonial influence during the period of the British Raj. Much of contemporary Indian law shows substantial European and American influence. Various legislation first introduced by the British is still in effect in modified forms today. During the drafting of the Indian Constitution, laws from Ireland, the United States, Britain, and France were synthesized into a refined set of Indian laws. Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and the environmental law. Certain international trade laws, such as those on intellectual property, are also enforced in India.
Indian family law is complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws. In most states, registering of marriages and divorces is not compulsory. Separate laws govern Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, and followers of other religions. The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa, where a Portuguese uniform civil code is in place, in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption.
There are about 1221 laws as of May 2010[1] However, since there are Central laws as well as State laws, its difficult to ascertain their exact numbers as on a given date. The best way to find the about the Central Laws in India is from the official website.[2]
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[edit] History of Indian law
Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law, and had an historically independent school of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, dating from 400 BC and the Manusmriti, from 100 AD, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance.[3] Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia.[4]
Early in this period, which culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire, relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition.[5] Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear-cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semipermanent character.[6]
When India became part of the British Empire, there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were supplanted by the common law.[7] As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has little correlation to the institutions of the pre-British era.[8]
[edit] Constitutional and administrative law
The Constitution of India, which came into effect from January 26, 1950,[9] is the lengthiest written constitution in the world.[10] Although its administrative provisions are to a large extent based on the Government of India Act 1935, it also contains various other provisions that were drawn from other constitutions in the world at the time of its creation.[10] It provides details of the administration of both the Union and the States, and codifies the relations between the Federal Government and the State Governments.[11] Also incorporated into the text are a chapter on the fundamental rights of citizens, as well as a chapter on directive principles of state policy.[12]
The constitution prescribes a federal structure of government, with a clearly defined separation of legislative and executive powers between the Federation and the States.[13] Each State Government has the freedom to draft it own laws on subjects classified as state subjects 1. Laws passed by the Parliament of India and other pre-existing central laws on subjects classified as central subjects are binding on all citizens. However, the Constitution also has certain unitary features, such as vesting power of amendment solely in the Federal Government,[14] the absence of dual citizenship,[15] and the overriding authority assumed by the Federal Government in times of emergency.[16]'''''''
[edit] Criminal law
The Indian Penal Code formulated by the British during the British Raj in 1860, forms the backbone of criminal law in India. The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 governs the procedural aspects of the criminal law.[17]
Jury trials were abolished by the government in 1960 on the grounds they would be susceptible to media and public influence. This decision was based on an 8-1 acquittal of Kawas Nanavati in K. M. Nanavati vs. State of Maharashtra, which was overturned by higher courts.
In February 2011, the Supreme Court of India ruled that criminal defendants have a constitutional right to counsel.[18]
Capital punishment in India is legal. The last execution was conducted in 2004, when Dhananjoy Chatterjee was hanged for the rape and murder of a 14-year old girl.[19]
[edit] Contract law
The main contract law in India is codified in the Indian Contract Act, which came into effect on September 1, 1872 and extends to all India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It governs entrance into contract, and effects of breach of contract. Indian Contract law is popularly known as mercantile law of India. Originally Indian Sales of Goods Act and Partnership Act were part of Indian Contract act, but due to needed amendment there acts were separated from Contract Act. Contract act is the main and most used act of legal agreements in India.
[edit] Labour law
Indian labour laws are among the most restrictive (for the employer) and complex in the world according to the World Bank.[20][21]
[edit] Tort law
Development of constitutional tort began in India in the early 1980s.[22] It influenced the direction tort law in India took during the 1990s.[22] In recognizing state liability, constitutional tort deviates from established norms in tort law.[22] This covers custodial deaths, police atrocities, encounter killings, illegal detention and disappearances. Law commission of India's first report was relating to the Liability of the State in Tort. This report was submitted by the Law commission of India on 11.5.1956. State owes tortious Liability under Article 300 of Indian Constitution.[23]
[edit] Property law
[edit] Tax law
Indian tax law is an extremely complex body of law, with several different taxes levied by different governments. Income Tax is levied by the Central Government under the Income Tax Act, 1961. Customs and excise duties are also levied by the Central government. Sales tax is levied under VAT legislation at the state level.Now a time white money is must required in our country and taxation is the way to go.
[edit] Trust law
Trust law in India is mainly codified in the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, which came into force on March 1, 1882. It extends to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian law follows principles of English law in most areas of law, but the law of trusts is a notable exception. Indian law does not recognise "double ownership", and a beneficiary of trust property is not the equitable owner of the property in Indian law.
[edit] Family law
Family laws in India are different when Warren Hastings in 1772 created provisions prescribing Hindu law for Hindus and Islamic law for Muslims, for litigation relating to personal matters.[24] However, after independence, efforts have been made to modernise various aspects of personal law and bring about uniformity among various religions. Recent reform has affected custody and guardianship laws, adoption laws, succession law, and laws concernint domestic violence and child marriage.
[edit] Hindu Law
As far as Hindus are concerned Hindu Law is a specific branch of law. Though the attempt made by the first parliament after independence did not succeed in bringing forth a Hindu Code comprising the entire field of Hindu family law, laws could be enacted touching upon all major areas that affect family life among Hindus in India.[citation needed] Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists are also covered by Hindu law.
[edit] Muslim law
Indian Muslims' personal laws are based on the Sharia, which is partially applied in India.[25] The portion of the fiqh applicable to Indian Muslims as personal law is termed Mohammedan law.[26] Despite being largely uncodified, Mohammedan law has the same legal status as other codified statutes.[27] The development of the law is largely on the basis of judicial precedent, which in recent times has been subject to review by the courts.[27] The contribution of Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in the matter of interpretation of the statutory as well as personal law is significant. The very Source of the Muslim law are divided into two categories : 1) Primary Source 2) Secondary Source
1)"Primary Source" As per Sunni Law:
- Quran
- Sunna or Ahdis (Traditin of the Prophet)
- Ijma (Unanimous Decision of the Jurists)
- Qiyas ( Analogical deduction)
As per Shia Law:
- Quran
- Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
- Ijma (only those confirmed by Imams)
- Reasons
2. "Secondary Source"
- Custom
- Judicial Decisions
- Legislation
Salient Feature of Quran:
- Divine Origin
- First Source
- Structure
- Mixture of Religion, Law and Morality
- Different Forms of Legal Rules
- Unchangeable
- Incompleteness-Quran is not a complete code, only 200 verses deal with legal matters
- Silence of Quran-On many legal issues, Quran is silent
[edit] Christian Law
For Christians, a distinct branch of law known as Christian Law, mostly based on specific statutes, applies.
Christian law of Succession and Divorce in India have undergone changes in recent years. The Indian Divorce (Amendment) Act of 2001 has brought in considerable changes in the grounds available for divorce. By now Christian law in India has emerged as a separate branch of law. It covers the entire spectrum of family law so far as it concerns Christians in India. Christian law, to a great extent is based on English law but there are laws that originated on the strength of customary practices and precedents.
Christian family law has now distinct sub branches like laws on marriage, divorce,restitution, judicial separation, succession, adoption, guardianship,maintenance, custody of minor children and relevance of canon law and all that regulates familial relationship.
[edit] Nationality law
Nationality law or citizenship law is mainly codified in the constitution of India and the Citizenship Act of 1955. Although the Constitution of India bars multiple citizenship, the Parliament of India passed on January 7, 2004, a law creating a new form of very limited dual nationality called Overseas Citizenship of India. Overseas citizens of India have no form of political rights or participation in the government, however, and there are no plans to issue to overseas citizens any form of Indian passport.
[edit] Law enforcement
India has a multitude of law enforcement agencies. All agencies are part of the Internal Affairs Ministry (Home Ministry). At the very basic level is the local police force, which is under state jurisdiction.
[edit] See also
- Central Bureau of Investigation
- Indian Penal Code
- Law enforcement in India
- Legal systems of the world
- Supreme Court of India
[edit] Notes
- ^ http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/
- ^ http://indiacode.nic.in/
- ^ Glenn 2000, p. 255
- ^ Glenn 2000, p. 276
- ^ Alexander, C.H. (July 1952). "International Law in India". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 1 (3): 289–300. ISSN 00205893.
- ^ Viswanatha, S.T., International Law in Ancient India, 1925
- ^ Glenn 2000, p. 273
- ^ Jain 2006, p. 2
- ^ Basu 2007, p. 27
- ^ a b Basu 2007, p. 41
- ^ Basu 2007, p. 42
- ^ Basu 2007, p. 43
- ^ Basu 2007, p. 53
- ^ Basu 2007, p. 50
- ^ Basu 2007, p. 59
- ^ Basu 2007, p. 63
- ^ https://indialawyers.wordpress.com/tag/nani-palkhivala/
- ^ Dwyer Arce (February 28, 2011). "India Supreme Court finds constitutional right to counsel". JURIST - Paper Chase. http://jurist.org/paperchase/2011/02/india-supreme-court-finds-constitutional-right-to-counsel.php.
- ^ News Brief
- ^ "India Country Overview 2008". World Bank. 2008. http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20195738~menuPK:295591~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html.
- ^ "World Bank criticizes India's labor laws". http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/World_Bank_criticizes_India%E2%80%99s_labor_laws_-nid-29498.html.
- ^ a b c Dr. Usha Ramachandran. "Tort Law in India" (PDF). http://www.ielrc.org/content/a0206.pdf.
- ^ http://lawmin.nic.in/ncrwc/finalreport/v2b1-13.htm
- ^ Jain 2006, p. 530
- ^ Fyzee 2008, p. 1
- ^ Fyzee 2008, p. 2
- ^ a b Fyzee 2008, p. 65
[edit] References
- Basu, Durga Das (2007). Commentary on the Constitution of India (8th ed.). Nagpur: Wadhwa & Co. ISBN 9788180384790.
- Fyzee, Asaf A.A. (2008). Outlines of Muhammadan Law (5th ed.). Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195691696.
- Glenn, H. Patrick (2000). Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198765754.
- Jain, M.P. (2006). Outlines of Indian Legal and Constitutional History (6th ed.). Nagpur: Wadhwa & Co. ISBN 9788180382642.
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Life in India
