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Suggest pagesList of plants used in herbalism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from List of medicinal herbs)
This is a list of plants used in herbalism.
Most cultures have a tradition of using plants medicinally. In Europe, apothecaries stocked herbal ingredients for their medicines. In the Latin names for plants created by Linnaeus, the word officinalis indicates that a plant was used in this way. For example, the marsh mallow has the classification Althaea officinalis, as it was traditionally used as an emollient to soothe ulcers.[1] Ayurvedic medicine, herbal medicine and traditional Chinese medicine are other examples of medical practices that incorporate medical uses of plants. Pharmacognosy is the branch of modern medicine about medicines from plant sources. Plants included here are those that have been or are being used medicinally, in at least one such medicinal tradition.
Modern medicine now tends to use the active ingredients of plants rather than the whole plants. The phytochemicals may be synthesized, compounded or otherwise transformed to make pharmaceuticals. Examples of such derivatives include Digoxin, from digitalis; capsaicine, from chili; and aspirin, which is chemically related to the salicylic acid found in white willow. The opium poppy continues to be a major industrial source of opiates, including morphine. Few traditional remedies, however, have translated into modern drugs, although there is continuing research into the efficacy and possible adaptation of traditional herbal treatments.
Many, if not most of the medicinal uses of plants noted in this article predate evidence based medicine, and the majority have not been subjected to scientific research to determine their efficacy. In general, a plant should only be used medicinally if studies have shown that this usage is safe and effective. Except as otherwise noted, it should not be presumed that either is the case.
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[edit] List of plants by common name
[edit] A
- Açai (Euterpe oleracea) Although açai berries are a longstanding food source for indigenous people of the Amazon, there is no evidence that they have historically served a medicinal, as opposed to nutritional role. In spite of their recent popularity in the United States as a dietary supplement, there is currently no evidence for their effectiveness for any health-related purpose.[2]
- Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) leaves are used to lower cholesterol, as well as for kidney and urinary tract ailments.[3]
- Aloe vera leaves are widely used to heal burns, wounds and other skin ailments[4]
- Arnica (Arnica montana) is used as an anti-inflammatory[5] and for osteoarthritis.[6]
- Asthma weed (Euphorbia hirta) has been used traditionally in Asia to treat bronchitic asthma and laryngeal spasm.[7][8] It is used in the Philippines for dengue fever[9][10]
- Astragalus (Astragalus propinquus) has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine to strengthen the immune system, and is used in modern China to treat hepatitis and as an adjunctive therapy in cancer.[11]
[edit] B
- Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) has a long history of medicinal use, dating back to the Middle Ages particularly among Native Americans. Uses have included skin ailments, scurvy and gastro-intestinal ailments.[12]
- Belladonna (Atropa belladonna), although toxic, was used historically in Italy by women to enlarge their pupils, as well as a sedative, among other uses. The name itself means "beautiful woman" in Italian.[13]
- Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) used to treat diarrhea, scurvy, and other conditions.[14]
- Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is used as an agent to reduce the blood glucose level.[15]
- Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) is used by both primates and indigenous peoples in Africa to treat intestinal ailments such as dysentery[16][17]
- Bitter orange (Citrus × aurantium) used in traditional Chinese medicine and by indigenous peoples of the Amazon for nausea, indigestion and constipation.[18]
- Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) historically used for arthritis and muscle pain, used more recently for conditions related to menopause and menstruation.[19]
- Blessed thistle (Cnicus benedictus) was used during the Middle Ages to treat bubonic plague. In modern times, tea made from blessed thistle is used for loss of appetite, indigestion and other purposes.[20]
- Blueberries (genus Vaccinium) are of current medical interest as an antioxidant[21][22] and for urinary tract ailments[23]
- Burdock (Arctium lappa) has been used traditionally as a diuretic and to lower blood sugar[24] and, in traditional Chinese medicine as a treatment for sore throat and symptoms of the common cold.[25]
[edit] C
- Cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa) has a long history of use in South America to prevent and treat disease.[26]
- Cayenne (Capsicum annuum) is a type of chili that has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years. Uses have included pain relief and treating fever, cold, diarrhea, among other conditions.[27][28]{Failed verification}} [29][unreliable source?]
- Celery (Apium graveolens) seed is used only occasionally in tradition medicine. Modern usage is primarily as a diuretic.[30]
- Chamomille (Matricaria recutita and Anthemis nobilis) used over thousands of years for a variety of conditions, including sleeplessness, anxiety, and gastrointestinal conditions such as upset stomach, gas, and diarrhea.[31]
- Chaparral (Larrea tridentata) leaves and twigs are used by Native Americans to make a tea used for a variety of conditions, including arthritis, cancer and a number of others. Subsequent studies have been extremely variable, at best. Chaparral has also been shown to have high liver toxicity, and has led to kidney failure, and is not recommended for any use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or American Cancer Society.[32][33]
- Chasteberry (Vitex agnus-castus) used over thousands of years for menstrual problems, and to simulate lactation.[34]
- Chili (Capsicum frutescens)'s active ingredient, capsaicine, is the basic of commercial pain-relief ointments in Western medicine. The low incidence of heart attack in Thais has been shown to be related to capsaicine's fibronolytic action (dissolving blood clots).[35]
- Cinchona is a genus of about 38 species of trees whose bark is a source of alkaloids, including quinine. Its use as a febrifuge was first popularized in the 17th century by Peruvian Jesuits.[36]
- Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is used for upset stomach and as an expectorant, among other purposes. The oil is used topically to treat toothache.[37]
- Coffee senna (Cassia occidentalis) is used in a wide variety of roles in traditional medicine, including in particular as a broad-spectrum internal and external antimicrobial, for liver disorders, for intestinal worms and other parasites and as an immune-system stimulant.[38][39]
- Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) has been used as a vulnerary and to reduce inflammation.[40] It was also used internally in the past, for stomach and other ailments, but its toxicity has led a number of other countries, including Canada, Brazil, Australia, and the United Kingdom, to severely restrict or ban the use of comfrey.[41]
- Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) used historically as a vulnerary and for urinary disorders, diarrhea, diabetes, stomach ailments, and liver problems. Modern usage has concentrated on urinary tract related problems.[42]
[edit] D
- Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) was most commonly used historically to treat liver diseases, kidney diseases, and spleen problems[43]
- Digitalis (Digitalis lanata), or foxglove, came into use in treating cardiac disease in late 18th century England in spite of its high toxicity.[44] Its use has been almost entirely replaced by the pharmaceutical derivative Digoxin, which has a shorter half-life in the body, and whose toxicity is therefore more easily managed.[45] Digoxin is used as an antiarrhythmic agent and inotrope[46]
- Dong quai (Angelica sinensis) has been used for thousands of years in Asia, primarily in women's health.[47]
[edit] E
- Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) berries and leaves have traditionally been used to treat pain, swelling, infections, coughs, and skin conditions and, more recently, flu, common cold, fevers, constipation, and sinus infections.[48]
- Ephedra (Ephedra sinica)) has been used for more than 5,000 years in traditional Chinese medicine for respiratory ailments.[49] Products containing ephedra for weight loss, energy and athletic performance, particularly those also containing caffeine, have been linked to stroke, heart arrhythmia, and even death. Such products have been banned in the United States since December, 2003. Other dietary supplements containing ephedra were similarly banned in February, 2004.[50]
- Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) leaves were widely used in traditional medicine as a febrifuge.[51] Eucalyptus oil is commonly used in over-the-counter cough and cold medications, as well as for an analgesic.[52]
- European Mistletoe (Viscum album) has been used to treat seizures, headaches, and other conditions.[53]
- Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) oil has been used since the 1930s for eczema, and more recently as an anti-inflammatory[54]
[edit] F
- Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) has long been used to treat symptoms of menopause, and digestive ailments. More recently, it has been used to treat diabetes, loss of appetite and other conditions[55]
- Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) has been used for centuries for fevers, headaches, stomach aches, toothaches, insect bites and other conditions.[56]
- Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) is most commonly used as a laxative. Flaxseed oil is used for different conditions, including arthritis[57]
[edit] G
- Garlic (Allium sativum) widely used as an antibiotic[58][59][60][61] and, more recently, for treating cardiovascular disease[62][63]
- Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is used to relieve nausea[64]
- Gingko (Gingko biloba) leaf extract has been used to treat asthma, bronchitis, fatigue, and tinnitus[65]
- Ginseng (Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius) has been used medicinally, in particular in Asia, for over 2,000 years, and is widely used in modern society.[66]
- Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) was used traditionally by Native Americans to treat skin diseases, ulcers, and gonorrhea. More recently, the herb has been used respiratory tract and a number of other infections[67]
- Grape (Vitis vinifera) leaves and fruit have been used medicinally since the ancient Greeks.[68]
- Guava (Psidium guajava) has a rich history of use in traditional medicine. Scientific study of guava's medicinal usage has focused on gastro-intestinal ailments. Guava has been shown to be an effective treatment for acute infectious diarrhea.[69][70]
[edit] H
- Hawthorn (specifically Crataegus monogyna and Crataegus laevigata) fruit has been used since the first century for heart disease. Other uses include digestive and kidney problems.[71]
- Hoodia (Hoodia gordonii) is traditionally used by Kalahari Bushmen to reduce hunger and thirst. It is currently marketed as an appetite suppressant.[72]
- Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) seeds, leaves, bark, and flowers have been used medicinally for many centuries. The raw plant materials are toxic unless processed.[73]
- Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) dates back to ancient Roman and Greek medicine, when it was used to stop bleeding, heal ulcers and wounds, and treat tuberculosis and kidney problems.[74]
[edit] J
- Jamaica dogwood (Piscidia erythrina or Piscidia piscipula) is used in traditional medicine to treat pain, insomnia and anxiety.[75] Scientific studies have underscored the plant's medicinal potential.[76]
[edit] K
- Kava (Piper methysticum) has been used for centuries in the South Pacific to make a ceremonial drink with sedative and anesthetic properties. It is used as a soporific, as well as for asthma and urinary tract infection[77]
- Konjac (Amorphophallus konjac) is a significant dietary source of glucomannan,[78][79] which is used in treating obesity,[80] constipation,[81] and reducing cholesterol.[82]
[edit] L
- Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) was traditionally used as an antiseptic and for mental health purposes. It was also used ancient Egypt in mummifying bodies. There is little scientific evidence that lavender is effective for most mental health uses.[83]
- Lemon (Citrus limon), along with other citruses, has a long history of use in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine.[84] In contemporary use, honey and lemon is common for treating coughs and sore throat.
- Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) has a long history of medicinal usage in Eastern and Western medicine. Uses include stomach ulcers, bronchitis, and sore throat, as well as infections caused by viruses, such as hepatitis.[85]
[edit] M
- Marigold (Calendula officinalis), or calendula, has a long history of use in treating wounds and soothing skin[86]
- Marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis) has been used for over 2,000 years as both a food and a medicine[1]
- Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) has been used for thousands of years for a variety of medicinal purposes, in particular liver problems.[87]
[edit] N
- Neem (Azadirachta indica), used in India to treat worms, malaria, rheumatism and skin infections among many other things. Its many uses have led to neem being called "the village dispensary" in India.[88]
- Noni (Morinda citrifolia) has a history of use as for joint pain and skin conditions.[89]
[edit] O
- Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum) is the plant source of morphine, used for pain relief. Morphine made from the refined and modified sap is used for pain control in terminal patients. Dried sap was used as a traditional medicine until the 19th century.[citation needed]
[edit] P
- Papaya (Carica papaya) is used for treating wounds.[90]
- Peppermint (Mentha x piperita) oil, from a cross between water mint and spearmint, has a history of medicinal use for a variety of conditions, including nausea, indigestion, and symptoms of the common cold.[91]
- Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) and other species of Echinacea has been used for at least 400 years by Native Americans to treat infections and wounds, and as a general "cure-all". It is currently used for symptoms associated with cold and flu[92][93]
[edit] R
- Red clover (Trifolium pratense) has been used historically to treat cancer and respiratory problems. More recently, it has been used for women's health issues.[94]
[edit] S
- Sage (Salvia officinalis), shown to improve cognitive function in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease[95][96]
- St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), evaluated for use as an antidepressant, but with ambiguous results.[97][98][99]
- Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) was used medicinally by the Seminole tribe[100]
[edit] T
- Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) has been used medicinally for centuries by Australian aboriginal people. Modern usage is primarily as an antibacterial or antifungal agent.[101]
- Thunder God Vine (Tripterygium wilfordii) is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammation or an overactive immune system[102]
- Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is used to treat bronchitis and cough. It serves as an antispasmotic and expectorant in this role. It has also been used in many other medicinal roles in Asian and Ayurvedic medicine, although it has not been shown to be effective in non-respiratory medicinal roles.[103]
- Tulasi (Ocimum tenuiflorum or Holy Basil) is used for a variety of purposes in Aryuvedic medicine.[104]
- Turmeric (Curcuma longa), a spice that lends its distinctive yellow color to Indian curries, has long been used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine to aid digestion and liver function, relieve arthritis pain, and regulate menstruation.[105]
[edit] U
- Umckaloabo, or South African Geranium (Pelargonium sidoides), used in treating acute bronchitis[106]
[edit] V
- Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) has been used since at least ancient Greece and Rome for sleep disorders and anxiety.[107]
[edit] W
- White willow (Salix alba) is a plant source of salicylic acid, a chemical related to aspirin, although more likely to cause stomach upset as a side effect than asprin itself. Used from ancient times for the same uses as aspirin.[108]
[edit] Y
- Yerba santa (Eriodictyon crassifolium) was used by the Chumash people to keep airways open for proper breathing.[109]
- Yohimbe (Pausinystalia yohimbe) has a long history of use in Africa as an aphrodisiac.[110]
[edit] Databases
- Elizabeth M. Manhã, Maria C. Silva, Maria G. C. Alves, Maurício B. Almeida, Maria G. L. Brandão (October 3, 2008). "PLANT - A bibliographic database about medicinal plants". http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-695X2008000400020. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
- James Duke. "Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases". http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
- "Protabase: Useful Plants of Tropical Africa". Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://database.prota.org/. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
- "Tropical Plant Database". Raintree. http://rain-tree.com/plants.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- "Plant Database". Plants for a Future. http://www.pfaf.org/user/plantsearch.aspx. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes and references
- ^ a b William S. Haubrich (2003). "officina". Medical meanings: a glossary of word origins. p. 162. ISBN 9781930513495.
- ^ "Açai". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acai/. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ "Alfalfa". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/19.html. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
- ^ "Aloe Vera". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/aloevera/. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
- ^ Braga, Pier Carlo; Dal Sasso, Monica; Culici, Maria; Bianchi, Tiziana; Bordoni, Luca; Marabini, Laura (2006). "Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Thymol: Inhibitory Effect on the Release of Human Neutrophil Elastase". Pharmacology 77 (3): 130–6. doi:10.1159/000093790. PMID 16763380.
- ^ Widrig, Reto; Suter, Andy; Saller, Reinhard; Melzer, Jörg (2007). "Choosing between NSAID and arnica for topical treatment of hand osteoarthritis in a randomised, double-blind study". Rheumatology International 27 (6): 585–91. doi:10.1007/s00296-007-0304-y. PMID 17318618.
- ^ "Euphorbia hirta". Plants for a Future. http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Euphorbia+hirta. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ Malcolm Stuart (1987). Encyclopedia Of Herbs & Herbalism. Crescent. ISBN 0517353261.
- ^ Sol Aragones (September 2, 2009). "Can 'tawa-tawa' cure dengue?". ABS-CBN. http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/lifestyle/09/02/10/can-tawa-tawa-cure-dengue.
- ^ "DoH sees hope in 'tawa-tawa' as dengue cure". Manila Bulletin. August 26, 2011. http://www.mb.com.ph/node/332200/doh-. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "Astragalus". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/astragalus/. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
- ^ "Barberry". Drugs.com. http://www.drugs.com/npp/barberry.html. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- ^ "Belladonna". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/531.html. Retrieved 2011-10-01.
- ^ "Bilberry". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/bilberry/. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ Baldwa VS, Bhandari CM, Pangaria A, Goyal RK (1977). "Clinical trial in patients with diabetes mellitus of an insulin-like compound obtained from plant source". Upsala J Med Sci 82 (1): 39–41. doi:10.3109/03009737709179057. PMID 20078273.
- ^ Susan G. Wynn, Barbara Fougère (2007). "Zoopharmacognosy". Veterinary herbal medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 9780323029988
- ^ Huffman, M.A., Seifu, M (1989). "Observations on the illness and consumption of a possibly medicinal plant Vernonia amygdalina (Del.), by a wild chimpanzee in the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania". Primates 30: 51–63. doi:10.1007/BF02381210.
- ^ "Bitter orange". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/bitterorange/. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ "Black cohosh". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/blackcohosh/ataglance.htm. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ "Blessed thistle". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/94.html. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
- ^ Prior, Ronald L.; Cao, Guohua; Martin, Antonio; Sofic, Emin; McEwen, John; O'Brien, Christine; Lischner, Neal; Ehlenfeldt, Mark et al. (1998). "Antioxidant Capacity As Influenced by Total Phenolic and Anthocyanin Content, Maturity, and Variety ofVacciniumSpecies". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46 (7): 2686–93. doi:10.1021/jf980145d.
- ^ M.A.L. Smith, K.A. Marley, D. Seigler, K.W. Singletary, and B. Meline (2000). "Bioactive Properties of Wild Blueberry Fruits". Journal of Food Science 65 (2).
- ^ Howell, Amy B.; Vorsa, Nicholi; Marderosian, Ara Der; Foo, Lai Yeap (1998). "Inhibition of the Adherence of P-FimbriatedEscherichia colito Uroepithelial-Cell Surfaces by Proanthocyanidin Extracts from Cranberries". New England Journal of Medicine 339 (15): 1085–6. doi:10.1056/NEJM199810083391516. PMID 9767006.
- ^ "Burdock". Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/69154.cfm. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- ^ "Burdock (niu bang zi)". Herbs & Botanical. Naturopathy Digest. http://www.naturopathydigest.com/nutrition_herbs/herbs/burdock.php. Retrieved 2011-10-18.[unreliable source?]
- ^ "Cat's claw". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/catclaw/. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ Randall Kremer (2007). "Ancient Americans liked it hot -- Smithsonian study traces Mexican cuisine roots to 1,500 years ago". The Analyst Magazine. http://www.theanalystmagazine.com/pr/1302.htm.
- ^ Tso, Yvonne; Love, Bridgette; Ibañez, Rocio Cisneros; Ross, Jamie. "Capsicum spp.". Medicinal Plants of the Southwest. http://medplant.nmsu.edu/capsicum.shtm.
- ^ Glory Lennon. "The Many Medicinal Uses For Cayenne Pepper". Greenthumb Articles. http://www.greenthumbarticles.com/article/The-Many-Medicinal-Uses-For-Cayenne-Pepper-a897.html.
- ^ Max Wichtl. "Apii Fructus". Herbal drugs and phytopharmaceuticals. CRC Press. p. 52. ISBN 0849319617. http://books.google.com/books?id=7PRyMWo5e28C&lpg=PP1&dq=Herbal%20Drugs%20and%20Phytopharmaceuticals&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- ^ "Chamomille". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/chamomile/ataglance.htm. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ Dónal O'Mathúna and Walt Larimore (2001). Alternative Medicine: The Christian Handbook. Zondervan. p. 318. ISBN 0-310-223584-7.
- ^ "Chaparral". Herbs, Vitamins, and Minerals. http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsandMinerals/chaparral.
- ^ "Chasteberry". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/chasteberry. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ Sukon Visudhiphan, Sittith Poolsuppasit, Orachun Piboonnukarintr and Samorn Tumliang (June 1982), "The relationship between high fibrinolytic activity and daily capsicum ingestion in Thais", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35: 1452–1458
- ^ Joseph P. Remington, Horatio C. Wood, ed (1918). "Cinchona". The Dispensatory of the United States of America. http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/usdisp/cinchona.html.
- ^ "Clove". National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/251.html.
- ^ John K. Francis. "Senna occidentalis (L.) Link". International Institute of Tropical Forestry. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Senna%20occidentalis.pdf. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "Tropical Plant Database". Raintree Nutrition. http://rain-tree.com/fedegosa.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ T.M. Teynor, D.H. Putnam, J.D. Doll, K.A. Kelling, E.A. Oelke, D.J. Undersander, and E.S. Oplinger (1997). "Comfrey". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin Extension, University of Minnesota Extension. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/comfrey.html. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- ^ Raymond Tice (October, 2007). "Comfrey and One of Its Constituent Alkaloids Symphytine, Review of Toxicological Literatur". http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/Chem_Background/ExSumPdf/Comfrey.pdf. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- ^ "Cranberry". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/cranberry/ataglance.htm. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
- ^ "Dandelion". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/dandelion/.
- ^ Note: Digitalis use in the United States is controlled by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and can only be prescribed by a physician. Misuse can cause death.
- ^ Arthur C. Gibson. "The Lifesaving Foxglove". Economic Botany Manual. http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Digitalis/index.html.
- ^ Lip GYH, Watson RDS, Singh SP (1995). "ABC of atrial fibrillation: drugs for atrial fibrillation". British Medical Journal 311 (7020): 1631–1634. PMC 2551512. PMID 8555811. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2551512.
- ^ "Dong quai (Angelica sinensis [Oliv. Diels)"]. Mayo Clinic. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/dong-quai/NS_patient-Dongquai. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- ^ "European Elderberry". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/euroelder/. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
- ^ "Ephedra". Health Notes. http://www.puritan.com/vf/healthnotes/hn77/hn77_english/Herb/Ephedra.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-18.[unreliable source?]
- ^ "Ephedra". National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. http://ods.od.nih.gov/Health_Information/ephedra.aspx. Retrieved 2010-10-06.
- ^ "Eucalyptus". Health Notes. http://www.puritan.com/vf/healthnotes/hn77/hn77_english/Herb/Eucalyptus.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
- ^ "Eucalyptus spp.". Medicinal Plants for Livestock. Cornell University Department of Animal Science. http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/medicinal/eucalyp.html. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ "Mistletoe". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/mistletoe/. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
- ^ "Evening primrose oil". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/eveningprimrose/. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
- ^ "Fenugreek". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/fenugreek/. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
- ^ "Feverfew". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/feverfew/. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
- ^ "Flaxseed". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/flaxseed/ataglance.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
- ^ Nicole Johnston (April 2002). "Garlic: a natural antibiotic". Modern Drug Discovery 5 (4). http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/mdd/v05/i04/html/04news4.html.
- ^ Cai, Yun; Wang, Rui; Pei, Fei; Liang, Bei-Bei (2007). "Antibacterial Activity of Allicin Alone and in Combination with β-Lactams against Staphylococcus spp. And Pseudomonas aeruginosa". The Journal of Antibiotics 60 (5): 335–8. doi:10.1038/ja.2007.45. PMID 17551215.
- ^ Eja, ME; Asikong, BE; Abriba, C; Arikpo, GE; Anwan, EE; Enyi-Idoh, KH (2007). "A comparative assessment of the antimicrobial effects of garlic (Allium sativum) and antibiotics on diarrheagenic organisms". The Southeast Asian journal of tropical medicine and public health 38 (2): 343–8. PMID 17539285.
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[edit] Further reading
- Bown, Deni (1995). Encyclopedia of herbs and their uses. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0789401843. http://books.google.com/?id=Pr4SAQAAMAAJ&dq=Plant%20medicine%20in%20practice%3A%20using%20the%20teachings%20of%20John%20Bastyr.
- William Mitchell, William A. Mitchell (ND.), John B. Bastyr (2003). Plant medicine in practice: using the teachings of John Bastyr. Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0443072388. http://books.google.com/?id=gRVtAAAAMAAJ&q=Plant+medicine+in+practice:+using+the+teachings+of+John+Bastyr&dq=Plant+medicine+in+practice:+using+the+teachings+of+John+Bastyr.
- Stephen Harrod Buhner (1996). Sacred plant medicine: explorations in the practice of indigenous herbalism. Roberts Rinehart Publishers. http://books.google.com/?id=Wxa1AAAAIAAJ&q=Sacred+plant+medicine:+explorations+in+the+practice+of+indigenous+herbalism&dq=Sacred+plant+medicine:+explorations+in+the+practice+of+indigenous+herbalism.
- Richard A. Cech, Sena K. (PHT) Cech, Anne (PHT) Gunter (2000). Making Plant Medicine. Horizon Herbs. ISBN 0970031203. http://books.google.com/?id=NLsaAAAACAAJ&dq=plant+medicine.
- David Hoffmann (2003). Medical herbalism: the science and practice of herbal medicine. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 0892817496. http://books.google.com/?id=7xMjzaMvbKUC&dq=plant%20medicine.
- J. T. Garrett (2003). The Cherokee herbal: native plant medicine from the four directions. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 1879181967. http://books.google.com/?id=OE_dlKnYkd4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Cherokee+herbal:+native+plant+medicine+from+the+four+directions+By+J.+T.+Garrett#v=onepage&q=The%20Cherokee%20herbal%3A%20native%20plant%20medicine%20from%20the%20four%20directions%20By%20J.%20T.%20Garrett&f=false.
- Eliot Cowan (1996). Plant Spirit Medicine: The Healing Power of Plants. Granite Publishing. ISBN 1893183114. http://books.google.com/?id=IUfjPAAACAAJ&dq=plant+medicine.
- Neuwinger, H.D. (2000). African traditional medicine: a dictionary of plant use and applications. Stuttgart, Germany: Medpharm Scientific. ISBN 3887630866.
- Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
- Journal of Ethnopharmacology
- Barnes; Anderson; Phillipson (2007). Herbal Medicines (3rd ed). London: Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 978 0 85369 623 0.
[edit] External links
The Wiktionary entry for herbalism- Media related to herbalism at Wikimedia Commons
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