Mam language

Mam
Qyol Mam
Spoken in	Guatemala Mexico United States
Region	Quetzaltenango, Huehuetenango, San Marcos, and Retalhuleu; Chiapas, Mexico; California, United States
Ethnicity	Mam
Native speakers	478,000  (2002)
Language family	Mayan Quichean–Mamean Greater Mamean Mamean Mam
Language codes
ISO 639-3	mam

Mam is a Mayan language with almost 480,000 speakers as of 2002, spoken in the Mexican state of Chiapas and the Guatemalan departments of Quetzaltenango, Huehuetenango, San Marcos, and Retalhuleu. There are also thousands of Mam speakers in California, United States.

Classification

See also: Mayan languages#Subdivisions

Mam is closely related to the Tektitek language, and the two languages together form the Mamean sub-branch, which together with the Ixilean languages, Awakatek and Ixil, form the Greater Mamean sub-branch. Together, Greater Mamean and the Greater Quichean languages (consisting of 10 Mayan languages, including K'iche'), form the Quichean–Mamean branch.

Dialects

Nora C. England (1983) recognizes three major groups of Mam dialects.

• Northern Mam in southern Huehuetenango Department. Northern Mam is the least conservative of dialectal division according to Terrence Kaufman (England 1983:6).
• Southern Mam in Quetzaltenango Department and San Marcos Department.
• Western Mam in northwestern San Marcos Department. The Tektitek language may be mutually intelligible with Western Mam dialects.

Because of a lack of literacy skills and interaction, spurred by the country's mountainous terrain, the language can vary widely from village to village, even though the villages may only be a few miles apart from each other. Furthermore, the Mam people have continually occupied their present-day territory, long before the Spanish Conquest, possibly as early as 500 A.D. according to linguist Terrence Kaufman (England 1983:6). This would explain the great dialectal diversity among the Mamean languages. Kaufman also suggests that the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes of Huehuetenango, which currently occupied mostly by speakers of Mamean languages.

Nevertheless, mutual intelligebility, though difficult, is possible through practice (English 1983).

Distribution

Mam is spoken 64 communities in 4 departments. Neighboring languages include Jacaltec and Q'anjobal to the north, Tekiteko to the west, and Ixil, Awateko, Sipacapeño, and K'iche to the east.

Quetzaltenango Department

• San Miguel Sigüilá
• Concepción Chiquirichapa
• Génova
• El Palmar
• San Juan Ostuncalco
• Cajolá
• San Martín Sacatepéquez
• Colomba
• Flores Costa Cuca
• Huitán
• Palestina de Los Altos
• Cabricán

Huehuetenango Department

• San Ildefonso
• Ixtahuacán
• Cuilco
• Tectitán
• San Pedro Necta
• San Sebastián Huehuetenango
• Malacatancito
• Todos Santos Cuchumatán
• San Rafael Petzal
• Colotenango
• Santa Bárbara
• San Juan Atitán
• Aguacatán
• San Gaspar Ixchil
• La Libertad
• La Democracia
• Huehuetenango
• Chiantla
• Santiago Chimaltenango
• San Juan Ixcoy

San Marcos Department

• San Antonio Sacatepéquez
• San Lorenzo
• Tejutla
• San Rafael Pie de La Cuesta
• San Pedro Sacatepéquez
• La Reforma
• El Quetzal
• Sibinal
• San José Ojetenam
• Pajapita
• San Cristobal Cucho
• Nuevo Progreso
• San Marcos
• Concepción Tutuapa
• San Pablo
• Ixchiguan
• San Miguel Ixtahuacán
• Tacaná
• Tajumulco
• Catarina
• Esquipulas Palo Gordo
• Malacatán
• Río Blanco
• Comitancillo

Retalhuleu Department

• El Xaw
• Santa Ines
• Sibaná
• San Miguelito
• Nueva Cajolá
• San Roque

Phonology

Vowels

Mam has 5 vowels:

	Front	Back
	Unrounded	Rounded
Close	i	u
Close-mid	e	o
Open	a

Vowel length is contrastive, so one can say that the total number of vowels is 10. In the Todos Santos dialect the vowel structure is somewhat different. While /o/, /a/, and /u/ remain the same as in other varieties, short /e/ has become the diphthong /ɛi/ and short /i/ has become /ɪ/, an audio example of this can be heard here:

. In the Todos Santos dialect, the long vowels (distinguished by the doubling of the letter) have evolved into separate sounds altogether. Long /aː/ has become /ɑ/, long /oː/ has become /ø/ and long /uː/ has become /y/. Interestingly while short /e/ and /i/ merged into /ɛi/ and /ɪ/, long /eː/ and long /iː/ have remained the same as in the other Mam varieties.

In some dialects vowels interrupted by stop have evolved into individual phomemes themselves, for example in Todos Santos dialect /oʔ/ represented by o' has evolved into /ɵˀ/ and /oʔo/ represented by o'o has evolved into /ɵ'ʉ/. Unstressed /o/ and /u/ may be pronounced as /ɤ/ and /ɯ/ respectively; this rounding of unstressed /o/ and /u/ is a common trait found in several Mayan languages such as Tsotsil.

Consonants

Mam has 27 consonants, including the glottal stop:

			Bilabial	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar		Uvular	Glottal
								Normal	Palatalized
Plosive	Normal		p /pʰ~ɸ/	t /tʰ/				k /kʰ/	ky /kʲ/	q /qʰ/	' /ʔ/
	Ejective			t' /tʼ~ɗ/				k' /kʼ/	ky'/kʲʼ/	q' /qʼ~ɠ/
	Implosive		b' /ɓ/
Nasal			m /m/	n /n/			ny/ɲ/	n /ŋ/
Fricative			w /v/	s /s/	xh /ʃ/	x /ʂ/				j /χ/
Affricate	Normal		b /β/	tz /t͡s/	ch /t͡ʃ/	tx /ʈ͡ʂ/
	Ejective			tz' /t͡sʼ/	ch' /t͡ʃʼ/	tx' /ʈ͡ʂʼ/
Trill				r /r/
Approximant				l /l/			y /j/	w /w/

/ɓ/ is realized as [β] word-finally and when part of a consonant cluster in many dialects. In the Todos Santos dialect it is pronounced as [v] as part of a consonant cluster and as [βv̻] word finally.

Examples: tseb' [tseβ] goat, kbon [kβoŋ] small table. In the Todos Santos dialect, tseb' is [tsɛiβv̻] and kbon is [kvoŋ] small table.

/p/ is realized as [pʰ] word-finally and before another consonant, [p] elsewhere. In the Todos Santos dialect it is pronounced [f] before ong vowels and [ɸ] before short [i], [o], and [u]. It is always pronounced [ɸʰ] word finally and is always prnounced [f] in a consonant cluster.

Examples: piich [piːt͡ʃ] bird ([fiːt͡ʃ] in Todos Santos dialect), txkup [ʈ͡ʂkupʰ] animal ([ʈ͡ʂkuɸʰ] in Todos Santos dialect), ptz'an [pʰt͡sʼaŋ] sugarcane, ([ft͡sʼaŋ] in Todos Santos dialect)

/ch/ has evolved from /tʃ/ to /sʃ/ in most Mexian dialects and some northern Guatemalan dialects. Sometimes the /t/ sound is still lightly pronounced before the stressd /sʃ/ sound.

Example: choot [tʃoːtʰ] weeds has evolved into [sʃøːtʰ] or [^tsʃoːtʰ]

/t/ is realized as [tʰ] word-finally and before another consonant, [t] elsewhere.

Examples: ta'l [taʔl̥] juice, soup, ch'it [t͡ʃʼitʰ] bird, q'ootj [qʼoːtʰχ] dough

/k/ is realized as [kʰ] word-finally and before another consonant, [k] elsewhere.

Examples: paaki'l [paːkiʔl̥] butterfly, xtook [ʂtoːk] staff, kjo'n [kʰχoʔŋ] cornfield

/w/ can be pronounced [ʋ], [v], [v̥] or [β] word initially, [w], [ʍ] [ʋ] following a consonant, and [ʋ], [v], [v̻] word finally. It is freely variable between [w] [v] [ʋ] [v̥] in all other positions with [ʋ] being the most common pronunciation. In the Todos Santos dialect, /w/ is realized as either [v] or [ʋ] word-initially or between vowels and before another consonant, as [w] following a consonant and as [v̥] word finally.

Examples: waaj [vɑχ] or [ʋaːχ] tortilla, kaytsawi [kai'tsaʋi] fidgeting, twon [twoŋ] introversion, lew [lɛiv̥] love (modern slang term)

/q/ is realized as [qʰ] word-finally and before another consonant, [q] elsewhere.

Examples: muuqin' [muːqiŋ] tortilla, aaq [aːqʰ] honeycomb, qloolj [qʰloːlχ] obscurity

/tʼ/ is realized interchangeably as [tʼ] and [ɗ] word-initially and -finally, after a vowel or before [l].

Examples: t'rikpuul [tʼrikʰpuːl̥] ~ [ɗrikʰpuːl̥] to jump, ch'uut [t͡ʃʼuːtʼ] ~ [t͡ʃʼuːɗ] something sharp-pointed

Examples: t'ut'n [tʼutʼŋ] ~ [ɗuɗŋ] to make noise, wit'li [witʼli] ~ [wiɗli] seated squatting

/n/ is realized as [ŋ] before velar- and uvular consonants and word-finally,
as [ɲ] before [j] and as [m] before /ɓ/ and /p/, [n] elsewhere.

Examples: nim [nim] much, jun [χuŋ] one, q'ankyoq [qʼaŋkʲoqʰ] thunder

Examples: saajel [saːŋχel̥] sent, nyuxh [ɲuʃ] my godfather

Examples: qamb'ax [qamɓaχ] foot, npwaaqe [mpwaːqe] my money

/l/ is realized as [l̥] word-finally, [l] elsewhere. In the Todos Santos dialect /l/ is interchangeable with /ɽ/ in all positions except before /k/, /kʼ/, /q/, or /qʼ/

Examples: luux [luːʂ] cricket, lo'l [loʔl̥] to eat fruits. In the Todos Santos dialect luux may be pronounced as [ɽyːʂ] and lo'l may be pronounced as [ɽoʔl̥], [loʔɽ] or [ɽoʔɽ].

Grammar

The most extensive Mam grammar is that of Nora C. England's A grammar of Mam, a Mayan language (1983), which is based on the San Ildefonso Ixtahuacán dialect of Huehuetenango Department.

The basic word order of Mam is VSO (Verb-Subject-Object, Verb-Ergative-Absolutive, or Verb-Agent-Patient). Most roots take the morphological shape CVC (England 1983:93). The only possible root final consonant cluster is -nC.

Nouns

The Mam language displays inalienable possession. Certain Mam nouns cannot be possessed, such as kya7j 'sky' and che7w 'star' (England 1983:69). On the other hand, some Mam nouns are always possessed, such as t-lok' 'its root' and t-b'aq' 'its seed'.

Noun phrase structure can be summarized into the following template (England 1983:140).

Demonstrative

Number

Measure

Plural

Possessive affixes

NOUN ROOT

Possessor

Adjective

Relative clause

The plural clitic is qa.

Noun affixes

• aj- 'agent'
• aj- 'native'
• -l 'agentive'
• -eenj 'patient'
• -b'il 'instrumental'
• -b'een 'resultant locative'
• -b'an 'reminder'
• -al 'abstract noun'
• -ab'iil 'abstract noun'
• -leen 'abstract noun'
• -le7n 'abstract noun'
• -an 'ordinal'
• -b'ji7b'il 'nominalizer'
• -b'al 'nominalizer'
• -b'atz 'nominalizer'
• -l 'nominalizer'
• -tl 'nominalizer'
• -tz 'nominalizer'

Relational noun affixes

• -u7n 'agent, instrument, causative'
• -ee 'dative, possessive, patient, benefactive'
• -i7j 'patient, thematic'
• -uuk'al 'instrument, comitative'
• -iib'aj 'reflexive'

Locative affixes

• -b'utx' 'at the corner'
• -i7jla 'around'
• -iib'aj 'over'
• -jaq' 'under'
• -txa7n 'at the edge of'
• -txlaj 'beside'
• -tzii7 'at the entrance of'
• -uj 'in'
• -witz 'on top of'
• -wi7 'on, at the tip of'

Classifiers

• jal 'non-human'
• nu7xh 'baby'
• xhlaaq' 'child'
• b'ixh 'person of the same status (intimate)'
• q'a 'young man'
• txin 'young woman'
• ma 'man'
• xu7j 'woman'
• swe7j 'old man'
• xhyaa7 'old woman'
• xnuq 'old man (respectful)'
• xuj 'old man (respectful)'

Measure words
Measure words quantify mass nouns.

• baas 'glassful' (< Spanish vaso)
• ma7l 'shot of liquor'
• laq 'plateful'
• pixh 'piece'
• txut 'drop'
• ba7uj 'a lot'

Numbers
San Ildefonso Ixtahuacán Mam numbers are as follows (England 1983:84). Numbers above twenty are rarely used in Ixtahuacán and are usually only known by elderly speakers. Although the number system would have originally been vigesimal (i.e., base 20), the present-day number system of Ixtahuacán is now decimal.

1. juun
2. kab'
3. oox
4. kyaaj
5. jwe7
6. qaq
7. wuuq
8. wajxaq
9. b'elaj
10. laaj
20. wiinqan
40. kya7wnaq
60. oxk'aal
80.. junmutx'

Pronouns

Mam has no independent pronouns (England 1983:155). Rather, they always exist as bound morphemes.

Possessives

• n- 'my'
• t- 'your (sg.)'
• t- 'his, her'
• q- 'our (exclusive)'
• q- 'our (inclusive)'
• ky- 'your (pl.)
• ky- 'their'

Verbs

Like all other Mayan languages, Mam is an ergative language.

Transitive verbal affixes

• -b'aa 'transitivizer' (vowel length can also be used)
• -laa 'applicative'
• -wa 'applicative'
• -b'V 'causative'
• -chV 'causative' (variants: -chaa, -chii, -chuu)
• -k'uu 'causative'
• -lV 'causative'
• -mV 'causative'
• -nV 'causative'
• -pV 'causative'
• -q'V 'causative'
• -saa 'causative'
• -tzii 'causative'
• -tz'V 'causative'
• -tx'ii 'causative'
• -wV 'causative'
• -najee7 'repetitive'
• -7kj 'processive'
• -7tz 'processive imperative'

Intransitive verbal affixes

• -n 'antipassive'
• -Vn 'affect'
• -ax 'versive'
• -ee7 'versive'
• -eet 'passive'
• -j 'passive'
• -njtz 'passive'
• -b'aj 'processive passive'
• -b'a 'intransitivizer'
• -ch 'intransitivizer'
• -chaj 'intransitivizer'
• -paj 'intransitivizer'
• -t 'intransitivizer'
• -tz'aj 'intransitivizer'
• -tz'aq 'intransitivizer'
• -7 ... -al 'specific termination'

Other verbal affixes

• -l 'infinitive'

Aspects
Mam verbs have 6 aspects that are prefixed to the verb root (England 1983: 58, 161-162).

• ma 'recent past'
• o 'past'
• ok 'potential' (not obligatory)
• n- 'progressive'
• x- 'recent past dependent' (used in subordinate clauses)
• Ø- 'past dependent' (used in subordinate clauses)

Modes

• Potential transitive: -a7
• Potential intransitive: -l
• Imperative: -m (-n before directionals)

Directionals
Directionals are auxiliary elements in verb phrases. They are derived from intransitive verbs.

• xi 'away from'
• tzaj 'toward'
• ul 'there to here'
• pon 'here to there'
• kub' 'down'
• jaw 'up'
• el 'out'
• ok 'in'
• kyaj 'remaining'
• aj 'returning from here'
• iky' 'passing'
• b'aj 'complete'

Further reading

• B'aayil, Eduardo Pérez, et. al. Variación dialectal en mam = Tx'ixpub'ente tiib' qyool / Proyecto de Investigación Lingüística de Oxlajuuj Keej Maya' Ajtz'iib'. Guatemala, Guatemala: Cholsamaj, 2000.

• England, Nora C. A grammar of Mam, a Mayan language. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983.

• Pujbʼil yol mam / Kʼulbʼil Yol Twitz Paxil; Kʼulbʼil Yol Mam = Vocabulario mam / Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala; Comunidad Lingüística Mam. Guatemala, Guatemala: Kʼulbʼil Yol Twitz Paxil, 2003.

• Rojas Ramírez, Maximiliano. Gramática del idioma Mam. La Antigua Guatemala, Guatemala: Proyecto Lingüístico Francisco Marroquín, 1993.

References

Bibliography

• Pérez, Eduardo and Jiménez, Odilio (1997). Ttxoolil Qyool Mam - Gramática Mam. Cholsamaj. 

• England, Nora C. (1983). A grammar of Mam, a Mayan language. Austin: University of Texas Press. 

External links

• A simple Mam - Spanish dictionary
• Robert Sitler's Mam - English dictionary (DOC) (PDF)
• Key phrases in Mam vs Spanish