Mango

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This article is about the fruit. For other meanings of the word, see Mango (disambiguation).
Mango
Ripe Banganpalli mangoes from Guntur, India.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Angiospermae
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Mangifera
Species: Indica

Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is indigenous to India.[1] Cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions and distributed widely in the world, mango is one of the most extensively exploited fruits for food, juice, flavor, fragrance and color.

In several cultures, its fruit and leaves are ritually used as floral decorations at weddings, public celebrations and religious ceremonies.

Contents

[edit] Description

Mango inflorescence and immature fruit
The seed of mango can be hairy or fibrous

Mango trees (Mangifera indica L.) reach 35–40 m in height, with a crown radius of 10 m. The tree is long-lived with some specimens known to be over 300 years old and still fruiting. In deep soil the taproot descends to a depth of 6 metres (20 feet), and the profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots also send down many anchor roots which penetrate for several feet. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 cm long and 6–16 cm broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 mm long, with a mild sweet odor suggestive of lily of the valley. The fruit takes from three to six months to ripen.

The ripe fruit is variable in size and color, and may be yellow, orange, red or green when ripe, depending on the cultivar. When ripe, the unpeeled fruit gives off a distinctive resinous sweet smell. In its center is a single flat oblong pit that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface, depending on the cultivar. Inside the pit 1–2 mm thick is a thin lining covering a single seed, 4–7 cm long, 3–4 cm wide, and 1 cm thick. The seed contains the plant embryo.

The "hedgehog" style is a common way of eating mangoes (left). A cross section of a mango can be seen on the right

[edit] Cultivation and uses

Mango orchard in Multan, Pakistan.
Unripe mangoes in a mango tree

Mangoes have been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years[2] and reached East Asia between the 5th-4th century BC. By the 10th century AD, they were transported to East Africa[2] and subsequently introduced to Brazil, West Indies and Mexico, where climate allows its appropriate growth.[2] The 14th century Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, reported it at Mogadishu.[3]

Mango is now cultivated as a fruit tree in frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates like the Indian subcontinent; nearly half of the world's mangoes are cultivated in India alone.[4][5][6]

Other regions where mango is cultivated include North, South and Central America, the Caribbean, south, west and central Africa, Australia, China, Pakistan and Southeast Asia. It is easily cultivated yielding 1,000 cultivars, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste of turpentine, which according to the Oxford Companion to Food some varieties actually contain) to the huevos de toro ("eggs of the bull", a euphemism for "bull's testicles", referring to the shape and size).

Though India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world, it accounts for less than one percent of the global mango trade.[7]

Dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties serve as ornamental plants and can be grown in containers.

A wide variety of diseases can afflict mangoes; see List of mango diseases.

[edit] Food

A ripe mango is generally sweet, although the taste varies from variety to variety. The texture of the flesh varies between cultivars, some having a soft, pulpy texture similar to an over-ripe plum, while others have firmer flesh like a cantaloupe or avocado. In some cultivars, the flesh has a fibrous texture. Mango is consumed both as ripe fruit and as raw fruit (vegetable). In the raw form and in pickle form, the skin of mango is consumed comfortably whereas in fruits, the skin gets thicker and bitter and is usually not eaten. The ripe mango is commonly eaten fresh.

[edit] Indian and Pakistani Cuisine

A pack of amchur (or dry mango) powder made in India.

Mangoes are widely used in the South Asian cuisine. Ayurveda considers ripe mango sweet and heating, balancing all three doshas (humors), while also providing energy. Sour, unripe mangoes are used to make chutneys, pickles, side dishes like meth-amba in Maharashtra and manga pachadi in Kerala. They are also eaten raw with salt and chili. Raw mangoes are also preserved in a brine solution with dried red chillis, known as Fhodd. A cooling summer drink called panna or panha is also made from mangoes.

Ripe mangoes are typically eaten fresh. Mango lassi (mango smoothie), made by adding mango pulp to the North Indian yoghurt drink lassi, is a popular drink, both in India and in Indian restaurants in some countries. Ripe mangoes are also used to make curries like mambazha kaalan in Kerala. Aamras is a popular pulp/thick juice made of mangoes with sugar or milk and is consumed along with a variety of breads.

Mangoes are also used to make preserves like moramba, amchur (dried and powdered unripe mango) and pickles (commonly known as achaar). Different varieties of mango pickles are made in many regions of India, such as Avakaya Pachchadi of Andhra Pradesh, Vadu Maangaa pickle and Thokku Manga pickle from Tamil Nadu, miscut (pronounced mis-koot), a spicy mustard-oil pickle from Goa. Ripe mangoes are often cut into thin layers, desiccated, folded, and then cut. These bars, known as aampapdi,' amavat or halva in Hindi, are similar to dried guava fruit bars available in Colombia.

The fruit is also added to cereal products like muesli and oat granola.

[edit] Non-Indian cuisine

Native green mangoes from the Philippines.

In Australia, the mango season overlaps Christmas. Mangoes are eaten for breakfast during this period and the first box of mangoes is auctioned off for charity. In the Philippines, unripe mango is eaten with bagoong. Dried strips of sweet, ripe mango (sometimes combined with seedless tamarind to form Mangorind) are also popular, with those from Cebu exported worldwide. Mangoes are also used to make juices, mango nectar, and as a flavoring and major ingredient in ice cream and sorbetes. Guimaras produces a delicious mango.

In Mexico, mango is used to make juices, smoothies, ice cream, fruit bars, raspados, aguas frescas, pies and sweet chili sauce, or mixed with chamoy, a sweet and spicy chili paste. It is popular on a stick dipped in hot chili powder and salt or also as a main ingredient in fresh fruit combinations. In Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica), mango is either eaten green with salt, pepper and hot sauce, or ripe in various forms. Only in Costa Rica, ripe mangoes are called manga to differentiate them. In Guatemala, toasted and ground pumpkin seed (called Pepita) with lime and salt are the norm when eating green mangoes. In Colombia mango is also eaten either green with salt and/or lime, or ripe in various forms.

Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on ice cream or blended with milk and ice as milkshakes. In Thailand and other South East Asian countries, sweet glutinous rice is flavored with coconut then served with sliced mango as a dessert. In other parts of South-east Asia, mangoes are pickled with fish sauce and rice vinegar. In Indonesia and Thailand, green mango is sold by street vendors with sugar and salt and/or chili, or used in a sour salad called rujak or rojak in Indonesia and Singapore. Green mangoes can be used in mango salad with fish sauce and dried shrimps. In Taiwan, mango is a topping that can be added to shaved ice along with condensed milk.

[edit] Nutrient and antioxidant properties

Mango, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 272 kJ (65 kcal)
Carbohydrates 17.00 g
Sugars 14.8 g
Dietary fiber 1.8 g
Fat 0.27 g
Protein .51 g
Vitamin A equiv. 38 μg (4%)
- beta-carotene 445 μg (4%)
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.058 mg (4%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.057 mg (4%)
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.584 mg (4%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.160 mg (3%)
Vitamin B6 0.134 mg (10%)
Folate (Vit. B9) 14 μg (4%)
Vitamin C 27.7 mg (46%)
Calcium 10 mg (1%)
Iron 0.13 mg (1%)
Magnesium 9 mg (2%
Phosphorus 11 mg (2%)
Potassium 156 mg (3%)
Zinc 0.04 mg (0%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database

Mango is rich in a variety of phytochemicals[8] and nutrients. The fruit pulp is high in prebiotic dietary fiber, vitamin C, polyphenols and provitamin A carotenoids.[9]

Mango contains essential vitamins and dietary minerals. The antioxidant vitamins A, C and E comprise 25%, 76% and 9% of the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) in a 165 g serving. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, 11% DRI), vitamin K (9% DRI), other B vitamins and essential nutrients such as potassium, copper and 17 amino acids are at good levels. Mango peel and pulp contain other phytonutrients, such as the pigment antioxidants - carotenoids and polyphenols - and omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Mango peel contains pigments that may have antioxidant properties,[8][10] including carotenoids, such as the provitamin A compound, beta-carotene, lutein and alpha-carotene,[11] polyphenols[12][13] such as quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechins, tannins, and the unique mango xanthone, mangiferin,[14] any of which may counteract free radicals in various disease mechanisms as revealed in preliminary research.[15][16] Contents of these phytochemicals and nutrients appear to vary across different mango species.[17] Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest content for which was beta-carotene accounting for the yellow-orange pigmentation of most mango species.[18] Peel and leaves also have significant content of polyphenols, including xanthones, mangiferin and gallic acid.[19]

The mango triterpene, lupeol[20] is an effective inhibitor in laboratory models of prostate and skin cancers.[21][22][23] An extract of mango branch bark called Vimang, isolated by Cuban scientists, contains numerous polyphenols with antioxidant properties in vitro[24] and on blood parameters of elderly humans.[25]

The pigment euxanthin, known as Indian yellow, is often thought to be produced from the urine of cows fed mango leaves; the practice is described as having been outlawed in 1908 due to malnutrition of the cows and possible urushiol poisoning.[26] One author[27] claims these descriptions of the pigment's origin rely on a single anecdotal source and Indian legal records do not mention such a practice being outlawed.

[edit] Potential for contact dermatitis

Mango peel contains urushiol, the chemical in poison ivy and poison sumac that can cause urushiol-induced contact dermatitis in susceptible people.[28] Cross-reactions between mango contact allergens and urushiol have been observed.[29] Those with a history of poison ivy or poison oak may be most at risk for an allergic reaction to mango skin.[30] This compound is also present in mango leaves and vines. During mango's primary season, it is the most common source of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[31]

[edit] Cultural Aspects

Mango roundabout, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

The mango is the national fruit of India, Pakistan and the Philippines.

In Hinduism, the perfectly ripe mango is often held by Lord Ganesha as a symbol of attainment, regarding the devotees potential perfection. Mango blossoms are also used in worship of Goddess Saraswati.

Mango leaves are used to decorate archways and doors in Indian houses and also during weddings and celebrations like Ganesh Chaturthi. Mango motifs are widely used in different Indian embroidery styles and are found in Kashmiri shawls, Kanchipuram silk sarees etc.

[edit] Production and consumption

A woman selling mangoes in Venezuela.

Mangoes account for approximately fifty percent of all tropical fruits produced worldwide. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates worldwide production of mangoes at more than 33 million tons in 2007 (table below). The aggregate production of 10 countries is responsible for roughly 80% of the entire world mango production.

Alphonso, Benishan or Benishaan (Banganpalli in Telugu and Tamil) and Kesar mango varieties are considered among the best mangoes in the Southern states whereas Dussehri and Langda varieties are most popular in the Northern states of India.

Generally, once ripe, mangoes have an orange-yellow or reddish peel and are juicy for eating while those intended for export are often picked while under-ripe with green peels. Although producing ethylene while ripening, unripened exported mangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as fresh fruit.

Like other drupaceous fruits, mangoes come in both freestone and clingstone varieties.

Top Mango Producers, 2007
Country Production in Tons
 India
13,501,000
 People's Republic of China
3,752,000
 Mexico
2,050,000
 Thailand
1,800,000
 Pakistan
1,719,180
 Indonesia
1,620,000
 Brazil
1,546,000
 World total
33,445,279

Source

Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division

[edit] Cultivars

Main article: List of mango cultivars
Alphonso mangoes (local name: Hapoos, also known as the "The King of Mangoes") are grown mainly in Devgad, Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri districts of Maharashtra, India and favored there, are now popular in the United States.[32][33]

Many hundreds of named mango cultivars exist. In mango orchards, several cultivars are often intermixed to improve cross-pollination. Many desired cultivars are mono-embryonic and need to be propagated by grafting methods or else they will not be true-to-type.

A common (mono-embryonic) cultivar is Alphonso known in Asia under its original name, Hapoos (हापुस). This originates from the coastal side of Maharashtra especially city named DevGadh in Konkan is considered to be premium producer. As it is extremely popular, even outside the Indian subcontinent, Alphonso is an important export product. Alphonso is also cultivated in Sindh province of Pakistan is called Sindhari. It is exported to the Middle East

Other popular cultivars are mentioned in the list (link above).

Cultivars excelling in one climate may fail to achieve elsewhere. For example, Indian cultivars such as Julie, a prolific grower in Jamaica, require annual fungicide treatment to prevent a lethal fungal disease known as Anthracnose in Florida. Asian mangoes are resistant to Anthracnose.

The current world market is dominated by the cultivar Tommy Atkins, a seedling of Haden which first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida, USA. Despite being initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers[citation needed], Tommy Atkins is now a favorite worldwide. For example, 80% of mangoes in UK supermarkets are Tommy Atkins. Despite its fibrous flesh and fair taste, growers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its exceptional production and disease resistance, the shelf-life of its fruit, their transportability as well as size and appealing color. Tommy Atkins is predominant in the USA as well, although other cultivars, such Kent, Keitt, the Haitian grown Madame Francis and the Mexican grown Champagne are widely available.

In urban areas of southern Florida, small gardens, or lack thereof, have fueled the desire for dwarf mango trees. The Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden has promoted "condo mangoes" which produce at a height below 2–2.5 m.[citation needed]

A list of additional leading cultivars can be found at the cultivar list in the external links below.

There is an Australian variety of mango known as R2E2, a name based on the orchard row location of the original plant. The mango also is cultivated from Jamaica.

[edit] Etymology

The English word mango comes from the Portuguese manga, which is probably derived from the Malayalam മാങ്ങ (māṅṅa) (pronounced "manga"),[34] from the Tamil mānkāy, from mān "mango tree" + kāy "fruit".[35] The word's first recorded attestation in a European language was a text by Ludovico di Varthema in Italian in 1510, as Manga; the first recorded occurrences in languages such as French and post-classical Latin appear to be translations from this Italian text. The origin of the -o ending in English is unclear.[34]

[edit] See also

[edit] Gallery

Mango tree with flowers.

Mango tree without flowers.

Sindhri Mango of Pakistan

Mature Mangifera Indica after annual flowering - Note the budding fruits and residual flowers.

Immature fruit of Mangifera approximately six weeks after annual flowering.

Flowers of Mangifera Indica

Banganpalli mangoes sold at Guntur, India.

Freshly harvested mangoes and bananas at a fruit stand on the island of Maui, Hawaii.

[edit] References

  1. ^ Mango: botany and taxonomy, HorticultureWorld
  2. ^ a b c Ensminger 1994: 1373
  3. ^ Watson, Andrew J. (1983). Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: the diffusion of crops and farming techniques, 700–1100. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 72–3. ISBN 0-521-24711-X. 
  4. ^ Jedele S, Hau AM, von Oppen M. An analysis of the world market for mangoes and its importance for developing countries. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, 2003[1]
  5. ^ India world's largest producer of mangoes, Rediff India Abroad, April 21, 2004
  6. ^ Mad About mangoes: As exports to the U.S. resume, a juicy business opportunity ripens, India Knowledge@Wharton Network, June 14, 2007
  7. ^ USAID helps Indian mango farmers access new markets, USAID-India, May 3, 2006
  8. ^ a b Ajila CM, Prasada Rao UJ (2008). "Protection against hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative damage in rat erythrocytes by Mangifera indica L. peel extract". Food Chem Toxicol 46 (1): 303–9. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.08.024. PMID 17919803. 
  9. ^ Nutrient profile for mango, Nutritiondata.com
  10. ^ Berardini N, Fezer R, Conrad J, Beifuss U, Carle R, Schieber A (2005). "Screening of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivars for their contents of flavonol O- and xanthone C-glycosides, anthocyanins, and pectin". J Agric Food Chem 53 (5): 1563–70. doi:10.1021/jf0484069. PMID 15740041. 
  11. ^ Gouado I, Schweigert FJ, Ejoh RA, Tchouanguep MF, Camp JV (2007). "Systemic levels of carotenoids from mangoes and papaya consumed in three forms (juice, fresh and dry slice)". Eur J Clin Nutr 61 (10): 1180–8. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602841. PMID 17637601. 
  12. ^ Mahattanatawee K, Manthey JA, Luzio G, Talcott ST, Goodner K, Baldwin EA (2006). "Total antioxidant activity and fiber content of select Florida-grown tropical fruits". J Agric Food Chem 54 (19): 7355–63. doi:10.1021/jf060566s. PMID 16968105. 
  13. ^ Singh UP, Singh DP, Singh M, et al. (2004). "Characterization of phenolic compounds in some Indian mango cultivars". Int J Food Sci Nutr 55 (2): 163–9. doi:10.1080/09637480410001666441. PMID 14985189. 
  14. ^ Andreu GL, Delgado R, Velho JA, Curti C, Vercesi AE (2005). "Mangiferin, a natural occurring glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced permeability transition". Arch Biochem Biophys 439 (2): 184–93. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2005.05.015. PMID 15979560. 
  15. ^ Percival SS, Talcott ST, Chin ST, Mallak AC, Lounds-Singleton A, Pettit-Moore J (2006). "Neoplastic transformation of BALB/3T3 cells and cell cycle of HL-60 cells are inhibited by mango (Mangifera indica L.) juice and mango juice extracts". J Nutr 136 (5): 1300–4. PMID 16614420. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16614420. 
  16. ^ Rodríguez J, Di Pierro D, Gioia M, et al. (2006). "Effects of a natural extract from Mangifera indica L, and its active compound, mangiferin, on energy state and lipid peroxidation of red blood cells". Biochim Biophys Acta 1760 (9): 1333–42. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2006.04.005. PMID 16860486. 
  17. ^ Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM (2007). "Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp". Plant Foods Hum Nutr 62 (1): 13–7. doi:10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3. PMID 17243011. 
  18. ^ Chen JP, Tai CY, Chen BH (2004). "Improved liquid chromatographic method for determination of carotenoids in Taiwanese mango (Mangifera indica L.)". J Chromatogr A 1054 (1–2): 261–8. PMID 15553152. 
  19. ^ Barreto JC, Trevisan MT, Hull WE, et al. (2008). "Characterization and quantitation of polyphenolic compounds in bark, kernel, leaves, and peel of mango (Mangifera indica L.)". J Agric Food Chem 56 (14): 5599–610. doi:10.1021/jf800738r. PMID 18558692. 
  20. ^ Chaturvedi PK, Bhui K, Shukla Y (2008). "Lupeol: connotations for chemoprevention". Cancer Lett 263 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2008.01.047. PMID 18359153. 
  21. ^ Prasad S, Kalra N, Singh M, Shukla Y (2008). "Protective effects of lupeol and mango extract against androgen induced oxidative stress in Swiss albino mice" (PDF). Asian J Androl 10 (2): 313–8. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7262.2008.00313.x. PMID 18097535. http://www.nature.com/aja/journal/v10/n2/pdf/aja2008241a.pdf. 
  22. ^ Nigam N, Prasad S, Shukla Y (2007). "Preventive effects of lupeol on DMBA induced DNA alkylation damage in mouse skin". Food Chem Toxicol 45 (11): 2331–5. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.06.002. PMID 17637493. 
  23. ^ Saleem M, Afaq F, Adhami VM, Mukhtar H (2004). "Lupeol modulates NF-kappaB and PI3K/Akt pathways and inhibits skin cancer in CD-1 mice". Oncogene 23 (30): 5203–14. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1207641. PMID 15122342. 
  24. ^ Rodeiro I, Cancino L, González JE, et al. (2006). "Evaluation of the genotoxic potential of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang), a new natural product with antioxidant activity". Food Chem Toxicol 44 (10): 1707–13. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.05.009. PMID 16857303. 
  25. ^ Pardo-Andreu GL, Philip SJ, Riaño A, et al. (2006). "Mangifera indica L. (Vimang) protection against serum oxidative stress in elderly humans". Arch Med Res 37 (1): 158–64. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2005.04.017. PMID 16314203. 
  26. ^ History of Indian yellow, Pigments Through the Ages
  27. ^ Finlay, Victoria (2003). Color : A Natural History of the Palette. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. ISBN 0-8129-7142-6. 
  28. ^ Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM (2007). "Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp". Plant Foods Hum Nutr 62 (1): 13–7. doi:10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3. PMID 17243011. "However, the mango peel has properties similar to sumac or poison ivy, resulting in allergic rashes around the mouth, eyes, cheeks, and genitalia if the urushiol oil is spread. Washing the affected area five minutes after contact should prevent some of the symptoms. Symptoms can be swelling, formation of yellow sores, redness, and if unmaintained, may be subjected to bacterial infection.". 
  29. ^ Oka K, Saito F, Yasuhara T, Sugimoto A. (2004). "A study of cross-reactions between mango contact allergens and urushiol". Contact Dermatitis 51 (5–6): 292–6. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.00451.x. PMID 15606656. 
  30. ^ Hershko K, Weinberg I, Ingber A (2005). "Exploring the mango – poison ivy connection: the riddle of discriminative plant dermatitis". Contact Dermatitis 52 (1): 3–5. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00454.x. 
  31. ^ McGovern TW, LaWarre S (2001). "Botanical briefs: the mango tree—Mangifera indica L.". Cutis 67 (5): 365–6. 
  32. ^ Allen J. Mango mania in Portland, Oregon, New York Times, May 10, 2006
  33. ^ Black R. Plump it up. Sweet, juicy mangoes are at their peak, with seasonal varieties ripe for the picking, New York Daily News, May 13, 2007
  34. ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary, mango, n.1 (and adj.). Retrieved 2009-06-22.
  35. ^ American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., mango. Retrieved 2009-12-19.

[edit] Further reading

  • Ensminger, Audrey H.; Ensminger, Marion E. (1994). Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia. CRC Press. pp. 1373. ISBN 0849389801. 
  • Ensminger, Audrey H.; et al. (1995). The Concise Encyclopedia of Foods & Nutrition. CRC Press. pp. 651. ISBN 0849344557. 

[edit] External links

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