Minembwe

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Coordinates: 3°56′3.91″S 28°43′48.22″E / 3.9344194°S 28.7300611°E / -3.9344194; 28.7300611
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Minembwe
Aerial view of Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe
Aerial view of Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe
Country DR Congo
ProvinceSouth Kivu
TerritoryFizi
SectorLulenge
GroupingBasimukuma Sud
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)

Minembwe is a cluster of several villages located in the highlands of the Lulenge, within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated at an altitude of about 2,500 meters above sea level, in a hilly and mountainous region covered with forests, which provides fertile land for agriculture. It is approximately 150 kilometers south of Bukavu, the capital city of South Kivu. The region is also home to various streams and rivers that flow into Lake Tanganyika, the second-deepest lake in the world.[1]

Minembwe was predominantly inhabited by the Bembe and Buyu people,[2] but the region boasts a rich ethnocultural diversity within the region, and it is also a point of confluence for many ethnic groups, including Bafuliiru, Banyindu, Bamushi, Baholoholo, Babwari, Bavira, Balega, Bahunde, Banyanga, Bashu, Baamba, Baswaga, and Banyamulenge. Although the Bembe people are considered the indigenous group in the area and constitute the majority, other ethnicities have a significant presence. Kibembe is the most commonly spoken language in Minembwe, followed by Swahili, which is prevalent in most of the sector centers. However, other minority populations speak their own vernacular languages.[3][4][5]

History[edit]

Early history, territorial division and ethnic tensions[edit]

The area was conventionally inhabited by the Bembe and Buyu people. It served as a center for trade, commerce, and cultural exchange, with people from various ethnic groups converging in the region.[2][5][6][7] Under Belgian colonial administration, the Bembe and Buyu communities were amalgamated within the Fizi Territory, which was subsequently divided into five regions: Itombwe, Lulenge, Mutambala, Ngandja, and Tangani'a. Nevertheless, following the end of colonization, the Itombwe sector was annexed closer to the Mwenga Territory to establish a more proximate administration for the local population.[8]

During the 1920s, many sections of these regions were deemed sparsely populated, prompting the Belgian colonial authorities to recruit labor from external areas to aid their development.[9] This led to the transportation of Banyarwanda to the highlands of Kivu from the late 1930s to the 1950s. The emigration of Banyarwanda had significant social and cultural repercussions in the area, notably in Minembwe. However, the integration process was not consistently concordant. Ethnic tensions flared up between the Banyarwanda and other ethnic communities in the vicinity, notably the Babembe, fueled by land disputes, competition for resources, and political power struggles.[10]

In the late 1950s, there was a significant influx of Banyarwanda immigrants into the Fizi Territory, particularly in the Lulenge sector. This migration was fueled by political instability in Rwanda and the search for better economic opportunities in neighboring areas.[11] Parenthetically, during the Rwandan Revolution of 1959–1961, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) settled Rwandan refugees in the sites of Lemera, Mulenge, and Katobo. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout the Lulenge sector and settling in some of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the South and North Kivu regions.[12]

Mobutu Sese Seko sporting a typical abacost in 1983

The Banyarwanda who established themselves in the Lulenge sector between the late 1950s and 1980s, alongside their counterparts who migrated to the eastern part of the Congo Free State in the nineteenth century, now commonly known as "Banyamulenge," harbored a collective ambition to forge their own self-governing territory like other ethnic groups. However, they were obligated to fulfill specific criteria set by the Belgian colonial administration and subsequently upheld by the Congolese state after gaining independence, in order to be officially recognized as a distinct tribal or ethnic group. These prerequisites encompassed possessing a native language that bestowed its name upon the tribe, a chieftainship to represent the tribe in relation to neighboring groups and the state, and a well-defined territory with acknowledged borders recognized by the neighboring tribes. Despite Kinyarwanda being the Banyarwanda's mother tongue, they lacked both a chieftainship and a clearly demarcated territory.[13][14][15] They were disqualified from being a Congolese tribe or acquiring land based on the three determining criteria. The designation "Banyamulenge" was not documented in colonial records. Throughout history, the Banyamulenge were predominantly recognized as "Banyarwanda," signifying their status as migrants with origins in Rwanda. It was not until the Republic of the Congo gained independence in 1960 that the Belgian colonists ceased classifying them exclusively as immigrants from Rwanda.[1][16]

1972 Ordinance, land acquisitions and identity crisis[edit]

In 1972, Barthélémy Bisengimana Rwema, a Tutsi cabinet director of Mobutu Sese Seko during his second republic, initiated a presidential "Ordinance № 69-096." This ordinance collectively granted Zairian (Congolese) nationality to all Banyarwanda.[17] However, the law placed both the Banyarwanda populations who had long settled in the eastern region of the Republic of Zaire, hence entitled to Congolese citizenship by virtue, and those coming from more recent migratory flows in the same predicament, generating bewilderment among the affected communities. The widespread acquisition of Congolese nationality, coupled with the perverse ramifications of the land legislation enacted under the framework of "Zairianisation," prompted businessmen, politicians, and influential Tutsi individuals to seize opportunities and acquire land, particularly former colonial plantations that had been redistributed by the state. These land acquisitions effectively legalized the land settlements of the Tutsi peasantry in the Kivu region, endowing them with a recognized status.[17] The impossibility of applying the "1972 Ordinance", not respecting the basic criteria, aggravated the tension and engendered conflicts in the region due to resistance from other Congolese tribes who considered themselves expropriated for the second time (the first time by the Belgian colonists) from part of their territory by Tutsis who remained from elsewhere in the collective unconscious.[17][18] These ethnic tensions threatened the national integrity and led the Congolese political authorities to repeal and annul the "1972 Ordinance" by passing Law no. 81/002 of June 29, 1981, and, thus, to correct the mistake that was made to the law regarding the recognition of ethnic communities.[17] In the same year, Banyarwanda changed their eponym from "Banyarwanda" to "Banyamulenge" to be distinguished from those coming directly from Rwanda.[19] However, the identity crisis between Banyamulenge and other Congolese tribes was conspicuous at the time as civil status offices continued to be torched to destroy the administrative documents necessary for any granting of nationality or land for Banyamulenge.

Tensions resurface (1991-1999)[edit]

Between 1991 and 1993, ethnic tensions resurfaced violently, during the representation of Kivu at the National Sovereign Conference (Conférence Nationale Souveraine) organized in Kinshasa to establish a democratic regime in Zaire. This resulted in the formation of youth militias initiating attacks and murders in Kivu,[20] but were subsequently halted following the intervention of the Special Presidential Division (Division Présidentielle Spéciale) to restore some semblance of order.[21]

At the onset of the Second Congo War, the Banyamulenge united with Rwandan Tutsi refugees, scattered throughout the vast expanse of the Kivu region[22] to fight against discriminatory nationality and land laws. The Banyamulenge fighters aligned themselves with the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), and later forged alliances with the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) and the Rally for Congolese Democracy (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie).[23][24][22] Following Mobutu's ousting from power, the Rally for Congolese Democracy, a rebel faction backed by the Rwandan government and led by Azarias Ruberwa at the time, established Minembwe as an independent region in 1999 alongside Bunyakiri in Kalehe Territory.[25][24][26]

Ethnic tensions: 2006–2023[edit]

The recognition of these two territorial entities became a source of ethnic tension between the various components of the Transitional Government at the beginning of 2006.[27][28] The Banyamulenge, having supported the AFDL and RCD forces during the Second Congo War, were accused of launching attacks on refugee camps and densely populated villages, perpetrating civilian executions, and carrying out acts of terrorism against Zairian civilians in different regions of South and North Kivu, including Bwegera, Luberizi, Luvungi, Katala, Rubenga, Lubarika, Kakumbukumbu, Mutarule, Kagunga, Kiliba, Ndunda, Biriba, Sange, Rwenena, Kahororo, Kamanyola, Lemera, Kidote, Makobola, Kasika, Kilungutwe, Kilungutwe River and Katogota. Consequently, many Congolese perceived the Banyamulenge as invaders encroaching upon their habitats.[29][30][24] Conversely, those on the Banyamulenge side argue that they were not given adequate space within the Fizi Territory and are therefore fighting for self-defense. This conflict has led to a displacement of approximately 140,000 individuals who were forced to leave their homes due to fighting between armed groups in Minembwe in May 2019, according to humanitarian organizations.[31][32]

Declaration of Minembwe as a commune[edit]

MONUSCO's helicopter transporting rations for the 12th brigade's troops based in Minembwe, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo

In September 2020, Minembwe was declared a rural commune in the Lulenge sector in the Fizi Territory, despite objections from other ethnic groups in the region who claimed that the proper legal and administrative procedures had not been followed. The installation of Minembwe as a rural commune, and the appointment of Gad Mukiza, a Tutsi, as its mayor on September 28, 2020, has generated a great deal of controversy and opposition from other Congolese tribes who assert their ownership of the land.[33][34][35][36] The controversy surrounding Minembwe has been fueled by the history of conflict between Banyamulenge and other ethnic groups in the region. Many Congolese see the declaration of Minembwe as a rural commune as a way for Banyamulenge to gain greater control over the region and consolidate their power. Some critics argue that the move was made in response to pressure from neighboring countries, particularly Rwanda, which has long been accused of supporting the Banyamulenge.[1]

On October 8, 2020, the process of creating Minembwe as a rural commune was canceled following a declaration by the President of the Republic, Félix Tshisekedi. His decision came after widespread protests and violence erupted in the region due to the declaration. The decision was made to ease tensions in the area and prevent further violence. However, Tshisekedi's government cited irregularities in how the declaration was made and concerns over the legality of the move. There were also allegations that the declaration was made to benefit a particular ethnic group, the Banyamulenge, who are seen as outsiders by other ethnic groups in the area. Nevertheless, the cancelation was welcomed by many groups, including opposition parties and civil society organizations.[37][38][1]

Félix Tshisekedi stated:

"For me, the salvation of the people is the supreme law. I cannot leave my people in danger. I have decided to cancel what has been done so far for Minembwe".[39]

The cancellation of the commune was met with mixed reactions from the Banyamulenge community, who saw it as a violation of their rights and a reversal of the gains they had made in their struggle for recognition and self-determination. Some Banyamulenge leaders and activists accused the government of caving in to pressure from other ethnic groups and abandoning its promises to protect their interests and promote their development.[40][33]

The situation in Minembwe has remained tense, with reports of violence and displacement continuing to emerge. In October 2020, the United Nations reported that at least 15 people had been killed and dozens more injured in clashes between Banyamulenge and other groups in the area. The UN also estimated that over 50,000 people had been displaced by the violence. The situation in Minembwe remains a contentious issue in the DRC.[41][42]

Overview[edit]

On July 20, 2021, Twiganeho militiamen and its allies attacked the Musika village, located in the southern Basimunyaka Groupement, Lulenge sector.[43] According to several testimonies, fifteen homes of civilians were scorched, forcing civilian members of the local community to move to Runundu and Ilundu villages. Other members of the local communities were also affected and moved toward the villages of Lumanya and Kwamulima.[43] Two elderly men were burned in the house, the children were separated from their parents and a hundred cows were abducted, according to witnesses in the area.  

In May 2022, clashes between Ngumino and Mai-Mai Biloze Bishambuke and their allies killed nearly five people in Irumba and Ngandura, villages situated 15 kilometers from Minembwe.[44]

In July 2022, 4 civilians were killed in Minembwe by Twiganeho, an insurgent group led by an army deserter Colonel Michel Rukunda, after refusing to join the forced recruitment.[45]

In August 2022, dozens of civilians and police officers were taken hostage by Twiganeho in the highlands of Minembwe, South Kivu.[45]

On January 4, 2023, the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) in charge of operations, General-Major Chico Tshitambwe, called on the population of Minembwe to dissociate themselves from armed groups.[46] Chico Tshitambwe also invited the militias to lay down their arms and join the PDDRC-S program.

Development opportunities[edit]

Being an area built on hills and without subsurface wealth, Minembwe does not present strong development possibilities except for its location as a riparian region which gives it agriculture and fishing development.[47][48] Lake Tanganyika, situated in the eastern part of the region, offers tremendous fishing potential for Minembwe. Despite strong agricultural and fisheries development, Minembwe has suffered from a lack of improvements in health, access to clean water, lack of roads, and basic civic services.[49]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d "Pourquoi Minembwe est symbolique pour certains Congolais". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  2. ^ a b Muchukiwa, Bosco (2004). Pouvoirs locaux et contestations populaires dans le territoire d'UVIRA au Sud Kivu de 1961 à 2004 (in French). Institut de Politique et de Gestion du Développent, Anvers. pp. 19–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ "Fizi Itombwe – Fizi ou territoire de babembe". Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  4. ^ Martin, Guy (2009). "The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. René LemarchandAfrica's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Gerard Prunier". Africa Today. 56 (2): 92–97. doi:10.2979/aft.2009.56.2.92. ISSN 0001-9887. JSTOR 10.2979/aft.2009.56.2.92.
  5. ^ a b Jean-Luc Vellut, Wilungula B. Cosma (1997). "Fizi 1967 - 1986: Le Maquis Kabila" (PDF). Institut Africain CEDAF. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  6. ^ Jean-Luc Vellut, Wilungula B. Cosma (1997). "Fizi 1967-1986: le maquis Kabila" (PDF). Institut Africain CEDAF. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  7. ^ Moeller, Alfred (1936). "Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo belge" (PDF). Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  8. ^ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2004). Pouvoirs locaux et contestations populaires dans le territoire d'UVIRA au Sud Kivu de 1961 à 2004 (in French). Institut de Politique et de Gestion du Développent, Anvers. pp. 19–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^ Commission pour l'Étude du problème de la main-d'oeuvre au Congo Belge (1929). Rapport du Sous-Comité de la Province Orientale du Comité Consultatif de la main-d'oeuvre (in French). Belgium. pp. 257–265.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ^ Spitaels, R (1953). Transplantation de Banyarwanda au Kivu", Problèmes d'Afrique Centrale (in French). Brussels, Belgium. p. 110.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. ^ Ndeshio Rurihose, O. (June 1992). La nationalité de la population zaïroise d'expression kinyarwanda au regard de la loi du 26 June 1991 (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. pp. 9–15.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  12. ^ Mararo, Bucyalimwe (1997). "Land, Power, and Ethnic Conflict in Masisi (Congo-Kinshasa), 1940s-1994". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 30 (3): 503–538. doi:10.2307/220574. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 220574.
  13. ^ Heyse, T. (January 1938). "Concentration et Déconcentration au Congo Belge". Progress in Public Administration. 11 (4): 611–624. doi:10.1177/002085233801100401. ISSN 0552-3060. S2CID 189496214.
  14. ^ de Laddersous, Alfred Moeller (1927). De certaines formes de participation des indigènes à l'administration de notre colonie (in French). pp. 262–266.
  15. ^ Gana, Aaron Tsado (2003). Federalism in Africa, Volume 2. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 9781592210800.
  16. ^ Lemarchand, René (May 1999). "Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa" (PDF). Centre of African studies, University of Copenhagen. Denmark. p. 15. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  17. ^ a b c d Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges (May 19, 2004). "The Politics of Citizenship in the DRC" (PDF). Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh. pp. 5–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  18. ^ Court, Anthony (2013-12-01). "The Banyamulenge of South Kivu: The 'Nationality Question'". African Studies. 72 (3): 416–439. doi:10.1080/00020184.2013.851467. ISSN 0002-0184. S2CID 145440232.
  19. ^ Lemarchand, René (May 1999). "Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa" (PDF). Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen. p. 16. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  20. ^ Gerard-Libois, Jules; Verhaegen, Benoit (2015-12-08). Congo 1964. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-62419-8.
  21. ^ "Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003" (PDF). August 2010. p. 70 (156). Retrieved 2012-04-05.
  22. ^ a b Kisangani, Emizet F. (2003). "Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A Mosaic of Insurgent Groups". International Journal on World Peace. 20 (3): 51–80. ISSN 0742-3640. JSTOR 20753410.
  23. ^ "When Fighting Becomes an End in Itself: Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo". www.international.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  24. ^ a b c www.hrw.org https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/drc2/DRC0802-02.htm. Retrieved 2023-03-13. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  25. ^ "Pourquoi Minembwe est symbolique pour certains Congolais". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  26. ^ "Erection de Minembwe en commune : Il y a". www.mediacongo.net. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  27. ^ Tshiambi, Albert (20 February 2006). "L'érection de Minembwe en "territoire" suscite des mécontentements" (in French). Le Potentiel. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
  28. ^ The UN and Kabila Illegally endorse Minembwe Archived 2008-10-10 at the Wayback Machine, La Conscience
  29. ^ "Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003" (PDF). August 2010. pp. 91–95. Retrieved 2023-04-06.
  30. ^ afrikarabia (7 October 2020). "RDC : Minembwe, la commune de la discorde". Mediapart (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  31. ^ afrikarabia (20 October 2020). "Minembwe : les clés pour comprendre la controverse". Mediapart (in French). Retrieved 2023-04-06.
  32. ^ "RDC: dégradation de la situation sécuritaire à Minembwe – DW – 24/06/2019". dw.com (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  33. ^ a b "DRC: Opportunistic use of 'balkanisation' theory in Minembwe". The Africa Report.com. 2020-11-02. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  34. ^ jojo, joram (2020-10-17). "THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MINEMBWE AS A COMMUNE IN SOUTH KIVU". Joram Jojo Multimedia. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  35. ^ afrikarabia (7 October 2020). "RDC : Minembwe, la commune de la discorde". Mediapart (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  36. ^ Mulongo, Freddy (4 October 2020). "De l'occupation à la balkanisation: Minembwe est vendu aux occupants par Tshilombo!". Mediapart (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  37. ^ "RDC : Felix Tshisekedi annule le processus de création de la commune de Minembwe". Radio Okapi (in French). 2020-10-08. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  38. ^ "Tshisekedi annule le décret élevant Minembwe en commune rurale". VOA (in French). 9 October 2020. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  39. ^ rdc, Le Regard (2020-10-09). "RDC: Felix Tshisekedi annonce l'annulation du processus de création de la commune de Minembwe". Le Regard (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  40. ^ "Minembwe Archives". Kivu Security Blog. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  41. ^ "Human rights in Democratic Republic of the Congo". Amnesty International. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  42. ^ "UNICEF Democratic Republic of the Congo Humanitarian Situation Report No. 8 - August 2020 - Democratic Republic of the Congo | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 10 December 2020. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  43. ^ a b "Uvira : des affrontements entre groupes armés s'intensifient dans les hauts plateaux de Minembwe et Fizi". Radio Okapi (in French). 2021-07-21. Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  44. ^ "Sud-Kivu : accalmie après combats entre deux groupes armés à Fizi". Radio Okapi (in French). 2022-05-02. Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  45. ^ a b "Sud-Kivu : des policiers et civils pris en otage par un groupe armé à Minembwe". Radio Okapi (in French). 2022-08-05. Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  46. ^ "Sud-Kivu : l'armée appelle la population de Minembwe à se désolidariser des groupes armés". Radio Okapi (in French). 2023-01-05. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  47. ^ "Democratic Republic of the Congo: economic support for isolated residents of South Kivu - ICRC". www.icrc.org. 2010-02-10. Retrieved 2023-04-06.
  48. ^ Chuma, Géant Basimine; Cirezi, Nadège Cizungu; Mondo, Jean Mubalama; Mugumaarhahama, Yannick; Ganza, Deckas Mushamalirwa; Katcho, Karume; Mushagalusa, Gustave Nachigera; Schmitz, Serge (2021-12-01). "Suitability for agroforestry implementation around Itombwe Natural Reserve (RNI), eastern DR Congo: Application of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) approach in geographic information system tool". Trees, Forests and People. 6: 100125. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100125. ISSN 2666-7193.
  49. ^ "Normal start to growing season A in eastern DRC supported by near average rainfall | FEWS NET". fews.net. Retrieved 2023-04-06.

3°56′3.91″S 28°43′48.22″E / 3.9344194°S 28.7300611°E / -3.9344194; 28.7300611

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