Indo-Aryan languages

Indo-Aryan
Indic
Geographic distribution:	South Asia
Linguistic classification:	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan
Proto-language:	Vedic Sanskrit
Subdivisions:	Dardic Northern Zone North-Western Zone Western Zone Central Zone Eastern Zone Southern Zone (the NW, W, C, and E zones all include languages traditionally counted as dialects of Hindi)
Ethnologue code:	17-9
ISO 639-5:	inc
Geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages. (Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren language are outside the scope of the map.)

The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are the dominant language family of the northern Indian subcontinent. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half of all Indo-European speakers (approx 1.5 of 3 billion), also more than half of Indo-European languages recognized by Ethnologue.

The largest in terms of native speakers being Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu, about 240 million), Bengali (about 230 million), Punjabi (about 90 million), Marathi (about 70 million), Gujarati (about 45 million), Oriya (about 30 million), Sindhi (about 20 million), Saraiki (about 18 million), Nepali (about 14 million), Chittagonian (about 14 million), Sinhala (about 16 million), and Assamese (about 13 million) with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million.

History

Indian subcontinent

See also: Linguistic history of India

• Old Indic (ca. 1500–300 BCE)
  • early Old Indic: Vedic Sanskrit (1500 to 500 BCE)
  • late Old Indic: Epic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit (500 to 300 BCE)
• Middle Indic or Prakrits (ca. 300 BCE to 1500 CE) [see]
• Early Modern Indic (Mughal period, 1500 to 1800)
  • early Dakkhini (Kalmitul-hakayat 1580)
  • emergence of Khariboli (Gora-badal ki katha, 1620s)
  • emergence of "Urdu" at Delhi fort (1670s)

Old Indo-Aryan languages

The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the language used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni takes numerous loan-words and cites from the Rigveda.

In about the 4th century BCE, the Vedic Sanskrit language was codified and standardized by the grammarian Panini, called "Classical Sanskrit" by convention.

Middle Indo-Aryan languages (Prakrits)

Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects. "Apabhramsa" is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.

The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim invasions of India in the 13th-16th centuries. Under the flourishing Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects.

The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Gujarati, Oriya, Marathi, and Punjabi.

New Indo-Aryan

Dialect continuum

The Indic languages of Northern India (that includes Assam Valley as for the language Assamese) and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called "Hindi" in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskrit-ized version of the colloquial Hindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The Indo-Aryan prakrits also gave rise to languages like Gujarati, Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi, which are not considered to be Hindi despite being part of the same dialect continuum.

Standard Hindi-Urdu

See also: History of Hindi and History of Urdu

In the Hindi-speaking areas, the prestige dialect was long Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by Khari Boli–based Hindustani. This state of affairs continued until the Partition of India in 1947, when Hindi continued as an official language of India and Pakistan but renamed Urdu in Pakistan. In contemporary times, there is a continuum of Hindi–Urdu, with heavily-Persianised Urdu at one end and Sanskritised Hindi at the other, although the basic grammar remains identical. Most people in Pakistan use Urdu and in India speak something in the middle, and this is what the term Hindustani is frequently used to mean today.

Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni

Main article: Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni

The theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In treaties between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general There were four Mittani kings with the name Dussrath and two of them named their capital Ayoodhia^{[citation needed]}.

Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen< Heidelberg 1986-2000; Vol. II 358).

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastr or Dusratha "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736).

Romani language

Main article: Romani language

The Romani language is usually included in the Central Indo-Aryan languages. Romani is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest.

There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language.

Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.

The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today.

It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century.

Classification

There can be no definitive enumeration of Indic languages, as their dialects merge into one another. Named languages are therefore social constructs as much as objective ones. The major ones are illustrated here; for the details, see the dedicated articles.

The classification follows Masica (1991) and Kausen (2006).

Dardic

Main article: Dardic languages

The relation of this family to other Indo-Aryan languages is unclear; these languages have a similar grammatical structure from that of the Classical Indo-Aryan languages. The representative languages are:

Pashayi, Khowar, Kohistani, Shina language, Kashmiri

Northern Zone

Central Pahari

Garhwali, Kumauni

Eastern Pahari

Nepali (Gurkali), etc.

North-Western Zone

Dogri–Kangri region

Dogri–Kangri (Western Pahari)

Dogri, Kangri, Mandeali, etc.

Punjabi

Lahnda(western Punjabi)

Hindko, Saraiki (South Punjabi), etc.

Sindhi

Western Zone

Rajasthani

Marwari, Rajasthani

Gujarati

Bhil

Khandeshi

Domari–Romani

Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)

Indic, Central Zone

Main article: Hindi languages

Western Hindi

Hindustani, etc.

Eastern Hindi

Fijian Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, etc.

Eastern Zone (Magadhan)

These languages derive from Magadhi Prakrit through Ardhamagadhi ("Half-Magadhi").

Bihari

Bhojpuri (incl. Caribbean Hindustani), Maithili, etc.

Bengali–Assamese

Oriya

Tharu

Southern Zone languages

It is not clear if Dakhini (Deccani, Southern Urdu) is part of Hindustani along with Standard Urdu, or a separate Persian-influenced development from Marathi.

Marathi

Konkani

Insular Indic

Sinhalese, Maldivian

The insular languages share several characteristics that set them apart significantly from the continental languages.

Unclassified

The following poorly attested languages are listed as unclassified within the Indo-Aryan family by Ethnologue 17:

• Dhanwar (Rai) (Dardic?), Kanjari (Punjabi?), Od (Marathi?), Vaagri Booli, Darai (Dardic?), Kumhali, Chinali (~Sanskrit), Andh, Lahul Lohar, Mina (not distinct?), Bhalay–Gowlan(perhaps in Southern), Bote and Degaru (perhaps in Eastern), Sonha (perhaps in Central).

Phonology

Consonants

Stop positions

The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five points of articulation: labial, dental, "retroflex", palatal, and velar, which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar, and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as [tʃ], Masica (1991:94) claims [cʃ] to be a more accurate rendering.

Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before front vowels (esp. /i/), before /j/, or when geminated. Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments (*t̪ɾ, t̪ > /tʃ/), and in Kashmiri. The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed /q/), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > /s/, which has happened in Assamese, Chittagonian, Sinhala (though there have been other sources of a secondary /ts/), and Southern Mewari.

Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romany, which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which is in danger of losing its labial and velar articulations through spirantization in many positions (> [f, x]).

/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /tʃ/, /k/	Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari, Maithili, Sinhala, Oriya, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /k/	Nepali, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dacca, Maimansing, Rajshahi), dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /k/	Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /tʂ/, /k/	Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /k/	Rajasthani's S. Mewari
/p/, /t/, /k/	Assamese
/p/, /t/, /tʃ/, /k/	Romani
/t̪/, /ʈ/	Chittagonian

Nasals

Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal-stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well.

Charts

The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.

Romani p t (ts) tʃ k pʲ tʲ kʲ b d (dz) dʒ ɡ bʲ dʲ ɡʲ pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n nʲ (f) s ʃ x (fʲ) sʲ v (z) ʒ ɦ vʲ zʲ ɾ l lʲ j	Shina p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ tʂ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɖʐ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ tʂʰ kʰ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ (f) s ɽ w j	Kashmiri p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k pʲ t̪ʲ ʈʲ tsʲ kʲ b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ bʲ d̪ʲ ɖʲ ɡʲ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ kʰ pʲʰ t̪ʲʰ ʈʲʰ tsʲʰ kʲʰ m n ɲ mʲ nʲ s ʃ sʲ z ɦ zʲ ɦʲ ɾ l ɾʲ lʲ w j wʲ
Saraiki p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s (ʃ) (x) (z) (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ	Punjabi p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n ɳ [ɲ ŋ (f) s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ [w] [j]	Nepali p t̪ ʈ ts k b d̪ ɖ dz ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ mʱ nʱ s (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ	Marwari p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ̪ ɗ ɠ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ w j wʱ	Hindustani p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n (f) s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɽʱ ([w]) ([j])	Assamese p t k b d g pʰ tʰ kʰ bʱ dʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ s x z ɦ ɾ l [w]
Bengali p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɽ [w] [j]	Gujarati p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɭ ɾʱ lʱ w j	Marathi p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dz dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɭ ɾʱ lʱ w j wʱ	Oriya p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ s ɦ ɾ l [ɽ] ɭ [ɽʱ] [w] [j]	Sinhala p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ ᵐb ⁿ̪d̪ ᶯɖ ᵑɡ m n ɲ ŋ s ɦ ɾ l w j

Language comparison chart

English	Gujarati	Marathi	Hindi	Bhojpuri	Oriya	Assamese	Bengali	Maithili	Punjabi (Indian)	Sinhala	Nepali	Kashmiri	Vedic Sanskrit	Pali	Romani	Saraiki (southern Punjabi)
beautiful	sundar	sundar	sundar	suhnar	sundara	dhuniya, xundôr	shundor	sundar	sohnā, sundar	sonduru	sundar		sundara	sundaro	shukar	sohnra
blood	lohi, khun, rakt	rakt	khun, rakta, lahu	khoon	rakta	taz	rôkto, lohit, lohu	shonit	khoon, lahoo	le	ragat	khoon	rakta, loha		rat	laho, rat
bread	paũ, roṭlā	chapāti, poli	chapātī, roṭī	roṭī	pauroṭi	pauruti	(pau-)ruṭi	roṭi	roṭi	roṭi, paan	paũroṭi		rotika		manro	roti, ma(n)ri, dhodha
bring	lā-	ān-	lā-	lāv-	nai an-	an-	an-	anaah	liya, laao	ghenna	lyaunu		anayati		anel	Ghin aa, Lai aa
brother	bhāi	bhau, bandhu	bhāī	bhāī, bhaīyā	bhai, bhaina	bhaiti	bhai		bveer, bhai, Bhaji	Aiya/malli	bhaai, dai, daju		bhatar, bandhu		phral	Bharaa, Veer, Lala
come	āv-	ye-	ā-	āv-	ās-, ā-	aanha, aanhok	ash-, a-	ā-	aao, aajaa	enna	aaunu		agataah	aagaccha	avel	Aao
cry	raḍ-	rad-	ro-	ro-	kandu	kand-	kãd-		roh, ronaa	adanna	runu		rodana, rava	rodanam	rovel	rovanra
dark	andhārũ	andhar	andhera	anhār	andhāra	andhar, ôndhôkar	ãdhar, ôndhokar		haneraa	anduru,andhakaraya	andhyaro		andhakara	andhakaaro	kalo	andhara
daughter	chhokḍi	leki	beṭi	dhiyā, beṭi, chauñri	jhiya	ziyari, ziyek	me		beti	duva	chhori		putri		chhai	Dhee
day	divas	divas, din	din	din	dina	din	din, dibôsh		dina	dinaya,dawasa	din		divasa, dina		dives	denh, jehara
do	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	kôr-	kôr-	kar-	kar, karo	karanna	garnu		karoti		kerel	karo
door	kerel	bārņu, darvājo	darvāzā, kavad	darvājā, kevadi	darwāzā	duar, dôrza	dôrja		booha, darwaza	dora,boohaa, darwaazaa	dhoka	dora		dvara, kapat	vudar	buha, dar
die	mar-	mar-	mar-, mar jā-	mu, mar	mar-	môr-	môr-, more ja-, mara ja-		mar-, mar ja-	maruna	marnu		marana, glah		merel	marna
egg	iṇḍũ	aṇḍ	anḍā	anḍā	anḍā, ḍimba	koni	ḍim		āṇḍā	bitharaya	andaa		andaka		anro	anda, Aana
earth	pruthvi	pruthvi, dharani	prithvī, dhartī, zamīn	jamīn, pirthivi	pruthibi	prithibi	prithibi		jag, jahān, prithvi, zamin	pruthuvi, polova, bhoomi,bima	prithivi		pruthvi, mahi, bhuvana		phuv	zameen, dharti
eye	āñkh	netra, ḍoḷā	āñkh	āñkh	ākhi	soku	chokh	ainkh	ākh	esa, akshi, neth	aankha		netra, lochna		yakh	akh
father	bāp	pitā	bāp	bāp	bāpa, bābā	dêuta	baba, abba		bāp, pitā	piya, thatha, thathi	buwā, pitā		pitra, janak		dad	abba, piyoo
fear	bik, ḍar	bhiti, bhaya	ḍar	ḍar	ḍara	bhoi	bhôe, ḍôr	bhay	dhar	bhaya,bhiya	dar		bhaya, bhi		dar, trash	darr
finger	āñgḷi	bote	anguli, ungli	anguri	ānguthi	anguli	anggul	āngur	ongli	angili	aunla		aguli, aguliyaka		angusht	ungil
fire	agni, jvaḷa	āg, agni	āg	āgh	agni, nia	zui	agun		agg	agni, gini	āgo		agni, bhujyu	manta	yag	bhaa
fish	māchhli	masa	machhlī	machhri	mācha	mas	machh		machhi	masun, mathasya, malu	māchā		matsya		machho	machhey
food	anna, khorāk, poshaṇ	jevana, bhojan	khānā, bhojan	khana	khādya, bhojana	ahar, khaiddyô, khuwa bostu	khabar		khānā, roti, ann	āhāra, kema, bojun,bhojana	khānā, anna, āhār		bhojana, khadati		xal	roti-tukkur, khanra
go	jā-	jā-	jā-	jā-	ja-	zu-, za-	ja-, gê-		jaa	yana	janu		gachati		jal	vanj
god	parmeshvar, dev, bhagvān	dev, parmeshwar, ishwar	bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, xudā	bhagvān,iswar	bhagabāna, ṭhākura, diyan	debôta, bhôgôwan	bhôgoban, ishshor		rabb, bhagwaan, waheguru	devi,devathava	bhagawaan, dewataa, ishwor		deva, ishwara, parmeshwara, devata		devel	rab, mālik, allāh
good	sārũ	changala	achhā	badhiya, changa	bhāla	bhal	bhalo	neek, neeman	changa, wadia	hari, hodhai	raamro		shobhna, uttama		lachho, mishto	changa
grass	ghāsthāro	gavata	ghās	ghās	ghāsa	ghã	ghash		kāh	thana,thruna	ghaas		truna, kusha		char	ghā
hand	hāth	hāt	hāth	hāth	hāta	hat	hat		hath	atha,hasthaya	hāt		bhuj		vast	hat
head	māthũ	ḍoke	sir, shīsh	sīs	munḍa	mur	matha		sirr, sees	oluwa,sirasa	tauko, seer		shir, mastak		shero	ser
heart	hruday	rudaya	dil	dil	hridaya	hridai, hiyan	ridôe		dil	hada,hradaya	hridaya, mutu		hridaya		ilo	Dil
horse	ghoḍũ	ghoda	ghorha	ghorha	ghoda	ghůra	ghoṛa		ghorha	ashvaya	ghoda		ashva, ghotaka, hayi		khoro, grast	ghora
house	ghar		ghar	ghar	ghara	ghôr	ghôr		ghar	gedhara	ghar		graha, alaya		kher	ghar
hunger	bhukh	bhukh	bhūkh	bhūkh	bhoka	bhuk	khide		bhukh	badagini	bhok		bubuksa, ksudha		bokh	bhuk
language	bhāshā	bhāshā	bhāshā, zabān	bhāshā, boli	bhāsā	bhaxa	bhasha	bhāshā		bhashaawa	bhaashaa	paahsha, boli	bhasha, vaani		chhib	boli, zaban
laugh (v.)	has-	hās-	hãs-	hãs-	hās-	hã-	hãsh-		has-	heena	hasnu		haasa, smera		asal	khill
life	jivan, jindagi	jivan	jīvan, zindagī	jinigi	jibana, prāna	zibôn	jibon	jiban	jeevan, zindgi	jeevithe	jeewan, jindagi		jivana, jani		jivipen	zindgey
moon	chandra, chāndo	chandra	chandramā, chandā	channa	chandra	zunbai	chãd, chôndro		chann, chand, chandarmā	chandra, handa	chandramā, juun		chandra, suma, bhanta		chhon	chandr
mother	mā, bā	āi, māi	mā	matāri, māi	mā, bou	ai, ma	ma, amma	myay	maa, mata, bebe	mawa,amma, ammi,matha	aamaa, maataa		janani, martr		dai	amma, maa
mouth	moḍhũ, mukh	tond, mukha	mūñh	mukha, muha	mukh	mukh		moonh	kata	mukha		mukha, tunda		mui	mukh
name	nām	nāv	nām	nā, nām	nāma, nā	nam	nam	nām	nām, nā	nama	nām		nāma		nav	nā
night	rāt, rātri, nishā	rātra	rāt, rātri, nishā	rāt	rāti	rati	rat, ratri, ratro	rat	rat	raathriya,rae	raat, raatri	raat	raatri, rajani			raat
open	khullũ	khol, ughad	khulā	khullā	kholā	khula	khola		khol, khulla	arinna	khulla		uttana, udhatita		rat	khulla
peace	shānti, shāntatā	shānti	shānti, aman	shānti, aman	sānti	xanti	shanti	shaanti, aman	shanti	samaya	shaanti	aman, shaanti	shaanti		kotor	aman, sakoon
place	jagyā, sthaļ	sthān, sthal, jāga	sthān, jagah	jagah	jāgā	thai	jaega		jagah, thaan, asthaan	thaana	thaaun, sthal		stapana, sthala, bhu		than	jaga
queen	rāṇi, madhurāṇi	rāni, rājmātā	rāni, malkā	rāni	rāṇi	rani	rani		rāni	rajina	rāni		rāni, rājpatni		rani, thagarni	ranri, malka
read	vānch-	vāch-	paṛh-	paṛh-	paḍh-	pôṛh-	pôṛ-		parh-	kiyawanna	padh-		pathati, vachana		chaduvu	parhnra, parh
rest	ārām	vishrām	ārām	rām	ārām, visrām	zirani	aram, bisram		ramman, araam	giman arinna	ārām, bishrām		vishrama			Araam
say	bol-	bol-, sang-	bol-, keh-	bol-	kah-	kũ-	bôl-	baiju	bol, kaeh	khiyanna	bhannu		vadati		phenel	bol, aakh
sister	bêhn	bhagani, bahin	baihn bahin	bhauṇi	bhonti	bon, apa, didi	bahin	bhaen, bhaengi	akka, nangi	bahini, didi		bhagii		phen	bheinr
small	nāhnũ	lahan, laghu	chhoṭā	chhoṭ	choṭa, sana	xoru	chhoṭo	chhoit	chhotaa, nikka	chuti, podi	saano		alpa, laghu		tikno, xurdo	nikka, chauta
son	chhokḍo	mulga	beṭā	putt	pua	putek	chhele		putt, putter, munda	putra, putha	chhora		tanaya, putra		chhavo	putr
soul	ātma	ātma	ātma, rūh	rūh	ātmā	atma	attã, ãtta		ātma, rooh	ātma	ātmā		ātma, atasa		di	rooh
sun	suraj, surya	surya	sūrya, sūraj	sūruj	surjya	xuirzyô, baeli	shurjo	suruj	suraj	ira, hiru, surya	surya		surya		kham	sijh
ten	das	daha	das	das	dasa	dôh	dôsh		das	dhaya	dus		dasha		desh	dah
three	traṇ	tin	tīn	tīn	tini	tini	tin		tinn	thuna	tin		tree, trayah		trin	trai
village	gāñḍu	gāv, kheda	gāoñ	gāoñ	gān, grāma	gaon	gram		pind, gran	gama,gramaya	gaun		graam, kheda		gav	dehat, jhoauk, vasti
want	joi-	pahije, ha-	chāh-	chāh-		lôg-	cha-		chāh	oone	chaahanaa		amati, apekshita		kamel, mangel	chah
water	pāṇi	pāṇi	pāni, jal	pāni	pāṇi, jala	pani	jôl, pani		pāni, jal	jalaya, wathura,paen	pāni, jal		paniya, jala		pani	panri
when	kyahre	kevhā	kab	kab	kebe	ketiyan	kôkhon, kôbe	kakhan, kahiya	kad, kadon	kawadhadha	kahile		kada, ched		kana	kadanr
wind	havā, pavan	vāra	havā, pavan	hāvā	pabana	bôtãh	batash, haoa		havā, paun	hulang,pavana,vathaya	huri, batas		pavan, vata		balval	hava, Phook
wolf	shiyāl	kolha	bherhiyā	siyār	gadhiyā	xiyal	sheal	siyār	bherhiya	vrukayaa	shyaal, bwanso		vruka, shwaka		ruv	baghiyaar
woman	mahilā, nāri	bāi, mahilā, stri	aurat, strī, mahilā, nāri	mehraru, aurat	stri, nāri	mohila, maiki manuh	mohila, nari, stri		aurat, zanaani, teeveen, istari	kanthawa, gahaniya,sthriya	mahilaa, naari, stri		nari, vanita, stri, mahila, lalana		juvli	aurat, treimat, zaal, zanaani
year	varash	varsh	sāl, varsh	sāl	barsa	bôsôr	bôchhor	barxa	saal, varah	varshaya	barsha		varsh, shaarad		bersh	saal
yes / no	hā / nā	hoy, ha / nahi, na	hāñ / nā, nahīñ	hāñ / nā	han /	hoi / nohoi	hêñ / na		haan, aaho / naheen, naa	ow / naha	ho / hoina, la / nai		hyah, kam / na, ma		va / na	ha / na
yesterday	(gai-)kāl(-e)	kāl	kāl	kālh	(gata-)kāli	(zuwa-)kali	(gôto-)kal(-ke)		kal	eeyeh	hijo		hyah, gatdinam, gatkale		ij	kal

See also

• Indo-Aryans
• Indo-Iranians
• Indo-Aryan migration
• Proto-Vedic Continuity
• The family of Brahmic scripts
• Linguistic history of India
• Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil

References

• John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872-1879. 3 vols.
• Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5 .
• Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
• Chakrabarti,Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
• Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
• Kobayashi, Masato.; & George Cardona (2004). Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
• Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2 .
• Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
• Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1-2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
• Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
• Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University.

External links

• The Indo Aryan languages, 10-25-2009
• Transliteration of Indic Languages & Scripts (Anthony Stone)
• Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages (Rajesh Bhatt), February 7, 2003.