Orders of magnitude (energy)

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Different orders of magnitude of natural energy production for solar, wind and geothermal versus average global consumption rate (1 W = 1 J/s)

This list compares various energies in joules (J), organized by order of magnitude.

List of orders of magnitude for energy
Factor (Joules) SI prefix Value Item
10−31   3.0×10−31 J average kinetic energy of a molecule at the lowest temperature reached as of 2003[citation needed]
10−28   6.6×10−28 J energy of a typical AM radio photon (1 MHz) (4×10−9 eV)[1]
10−24 yocto- (yJ) 1.6×10−24 J energy of a typical microwave oven photon (2.45 GHz) (1×10−5 eV)[2][3]
10−23   1.5×10−23 J average kinetic energy[citation needed] of a molecule in the Boomerang Nebula, the coldest place known outside of a laboratory, at a temperature of 1 kelvin[4]
10−22   2-3000×10−22 J energy of infrared light photons[5]
10−21 zepto- (zJ) 1.7×10−21 J 1 kJ/mol, converted to energy per molecule[6]
2.1×10−21 J thermal energy in each degree of freedom of a molecule at 25 °C (kT/2) (0.01 eV)[7]
3-7×10−21 J energy of a van der Waals interaction between atoms (0.02-0.04 eV)[8][9]
4.1×10−21 J "kT" at 25 °C, a common rough approximation for the total thermal energy of each molecule in a system (0.03 eV)[10]
7-22×10−21 J energy of a hydrogen bond (0.04 to 0.13 eV)[8][11]
10−20   4.5×10−20 J upper bound of the mass-energy of a neutrino in particle physics (0.28 eV)[12][13]
10−19   1.6×10−19 J ≈1 electronvolt (eV)[14]
3–5×10−19 J energy range of photons in visible light[15][16]
3-14×10−19 J energy of a covalent bond (2-9 eV)[8][17]
5-200×10−19 J energy of ultraviolet light photons[5]
10−18 atto- (aJ)    
10−17   2-2000×10−17 J energy range of X-ray photons[5]
10−16      
10−15 femto- (fJ)    
10−14   > 2×10−14 J energy of gamma ray photons[5]
2.7×10−14 J upper bound of the mass-energy of a muon neutrino[18][19]
8.2×10−14 J rest mass-energy of an electron[20]
10−13   1.6×10−13 J 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV)[21]
10−12 pico- (pJ) 2.3×10−12 J kinetic energy of neutrons produced by D-T fusion, used to trigger fission (14.1 MeV)[22][23]
10−11   3.4×10−11 J average total energy released in the nuclear fission of one uranium-235 atom (215 MeV)[24][25]
10−10   1.503×10−10 J rest mass-energy of a proton[26]
1.505×10−10 J rest mass-energy of a neutron[27]
1.6×10−10 J 1 gigaelectronvolt (GeV)[28]
3.0×10−10 J rest mass-energy of a deuteron[29]
6.0×10−10 J rest mass-energy of an alpha particle[30]
10−9 nano- (nJ) 1.6×10−9 J 10 GeV[31]
8×10−9 J initial operating energy per beam of the CERN Large Electron Positron Collider in 1989 (50 GeV)[32][33]
10−8   1.3×10−8 J mass-energy of a W boson (80.4 GeV)[34][35]
1.5×10−8 J mass-energy of a Z boson (91.2 GeV)[36][37]
1.6×10−8 J 100 GeV[38]
6.4×10−8 J operating energy per proton of the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron accelerator in 1976[39][40]
10−7   1×10−7 J ≡ 1 erg[41]
1.6×10−7 J 1 TeV (teraelectronvolt)[42], about the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito[43]
5.6×10−7 J energy per proton beam in the CERN Large Hadron Collider in 2011 (3.5 TeV)[44][45]
10−6 micro- (µJ)    
10−5      
10−4      
10−3 milli- (mJ)    
10−2 centi- (cJ)    
10−1 deci- (dJ) 1×10−1 J energy of an American half-dollar falling 1 metre[46][47]
100 J 1 J ≡ 1 N·m (newton–metre)
1 J ≡ 1 W·s (watt-second)
1 J kinetic energy produced as an extra small apple (~100 grams[48]) falls 1 meter against Earth's gravity[49]
1 J energy required to heat 1 gram of dry, cool air by 1 degree Celsius[50]
1.4 J ≈ 1 ft·lbf (foot-pound force)[41]
4.184 J ≡ 1 thermochemical calorie (small calorie)[41]
4.1868 J ≡ 1 International (Steam) Table calorie[51]
8 J Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin theoretical upper limit for the energy of a cosmic ray coming from a distant source[52][53]
101 deca- (daJ) 1×101 J flash energy of a typical pocket camera photoflash capacitor (100-400 µF @ 330 V)[54]
5×101 J most energetic cosmic ray ever detected, in 1991[55]
8×101 J kinetic energy of an average person swinging a baseball bat[citation needed]
102 hecto- (hJ) 3×102 J energy of a lethal dose of X-rays[56]
3×102 J kinetic energy of an average person jumping as high as they can[57][58][59]
> 3.6×102 J kinetic energy of 800 g[60] standard men's javelin thrown at > 30 m/s[61] by elite javelin throwers[62]
5-20×102 J energy output of a typical photography studio strobe light in a single flash[63]
6.0×102 J kinetic energy of 2 kg[64] standard men's discus thrown at 24.4 m/s[citation needed] by the world record holder Jürgen Schult[65]
6×102 J use of a 10-watt flashlight for 1 minute
7.5×102 J a power of 1 horsepower applied for 1 second[41]
7.8×102 J kinetic energy of 7.26 kg[66] standard men's shot thrown at 14.7 m/s[citation needed] by the world record holder Randy Barnes[67]
103 kilo- (kJ) 1.1×103 J ≈ 1 British thermal unit (BTU), depending on the temperature[41]
1.4×103 J total solar radiation received from the Sun by 1 square meter at the altitude of Earth's orbit per second (solar constant)[68]
1.8×103 J kinetic energy of M16 rifle bullet (5.56x45mm NATO M855, 4.1 g fired at 930 m/s)[69]
3.4×103 J kinetic energy of world-record men's hammer throw (7.26 kg[70] thrown at 30.7 m/s[71] in 1986)[72]
3.6×103 J ≡ 1 W·h (watt-hour)[41]
4.2×103 J energy released by explosion of 1 gram of TNT[41][73]
4.2×103 J ≈ 1 food Calorie (large calorie)
~7×103 J muzzle energy of an elephant gun, e.g. firing a .458 Winchester Magnum[74]
9×103 J energy in an alkaline AA battery[75]
104   1.7×104 J energy released by the metabolism of 1 gram of carbohydrates[76] or protein[77]
3.8×104 J energy released by the metabolism of 1 gram of fat[78]
4-5×104 J energy released by the combustion of 1 gram of gasoline[79]
5×104 J kinetic energy of 1 gram of matter moving at 10 km/s[80]
105   3×105 J—15×105 J kinetic energy of an automobile at highway speeds (1 to 5 tons[81] at 55 mph)[82]
5×105 J kinetic energy of 1 gram of a meteor hitting Earth[83]
106 mega- (MJ) 1×106 J kinetic energy of a 2 tonne[81] vehicle at 32 metres per second (72 miles per hour)[84]
1.2×106 J approximate food energy of a snack such as a Snickers bar (280 food calories)[85]
3.6×106 J = 1 kW·h (kilowatt-hour) (used for electricity)[41]
9.6×106 J recommended food energy intake per day for a moderately active woman (2000 food calories)[86][87]
107   1×107 J kinetic energy of the armor-piercing round fired by the assault guns of the ISU-152 tank[88][citation needed]
1.3×107 J recommended food energy intake per day for a moderately active man (2600 food calories)[86][89]
3.7×107 J $1 of electricity at a cost of $0.10/kWh (the US average retail cost in 2009)[90][91][92]
4×107 J energy from the combustion of 1 cubic meter of natural gas[93]
4.2×107 J caloric energy consumed by Olympian Michael Phelps on a daily basis during Olympic training[94]
6.3×107 J theoretical minimum energy required to accelerate 1 kg of matter to escape velocity from Earth's surface (ignoring atmosphere)[95]
108   1×108 J kinetic energy of a 55 tonne aircraft at typical landing speed (59 m/s or 115 knots)[citation needed]
1.1×108 J ≈ 1 therm, depending on the temperature[41]
1.1×108 J ≈ 1 Tour de France, or ~90 hours[96] ridden at 5 W/kg[97] by a 65 kg rider[98]
7.3×108 J ≈ energy from burning 16 kilograms of oil (using 135 kg per barrel of light crude)[citation needed]
109 giga- (GJ) 1-10×109 J energy in an average lightning bolt[99]
1.1×109 J magnetic stored energy in the world's largest toroidal superconducting magnet for the ATLAS experiment at CERN, Geneva[100]
1.4x109 J theoretical minimum amount of energy required to melt a tonne of steel (380 kW·h)[101][102]
2.0×109 J Planck energy, the unit of energy in Planck units[103]
3.3×109 J approximate average amount of energy expended by a human heart muscle over an 80-year lifetime[104][105]
4.5×109 J average annual energy usage of a standard refrigerator[106][107]
6.1×109 J ≈ 1 bboe (barrel of oil equivalent)[108]
1010   2.3×1010 J kinetic energy of an Airbus A380 at cruising speed (560 tonnes at 562 knots or 289 m/s)[citation needed]
4.2×1010 J ≈ 1 toe (ton of oil equivalent)[108]
5×1010 J yield energy of a Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, the second most powerful non-nuclear weapon ever designed[109][110]
7.3×1010 J energy consumed by the average U.S. automobile in the year 2000[111][112][113]
8.6×1010 J ≈ 1 MW·d (megawatt-day), used in the context of power plants[114]
8.8×1010 J total energy released in the nuclear fission of one gram of uranium-235[115][116][117]
1011  
1012 tera- (TJ) 3.4×1012 J max fuel energy of an Airbus A330-300 (97,530 liters[118] of Jet A-1[119])[120]
3.6×1012 J 1 GW·h (gigawatt-hour)[121]
4×1012 J electricity generated by one 20-kg CANDU fuel bundle assuming ~29%[122] thermal efficiency of reactor[123][124]
6.4×1012 J energy contained in jet fuel in a Boeing 747-100B aircraft at max fuel capacity (183,380 liters[125] of Jet A-1[119])[126]
1013   1.1×1013 J energy of the maximum fuel an Airbus A380 can carry (320,000 liters[127] of Jet A-1[119])[128]
1.2×1013 J orbital kinetic energy of the International Space Station (417 tonnes[129] at 7.7 km/s[130])[131]
8.8×1013 J yield of the Fat Man atomic bomb used in World War II (21 kilotons)[132][133]
9.0×1013 J theoretical total mass-energy of 1 gram of matter[134]
1014   6×1014 J energy released by an average hurricane in 1 second[135]
1015 peta- (PJ) > 1015 J energy released by a severe thunderstorm[136]
1.0×1015 J yearly electricity consumption in Greenland as of 2008[137][138]
4.2×1015 J energy released by explosion of 1 megaton of TNT[41][139]
1016   1×1016 J estimated impact energy released in forming Meteor Crater[citation needed]
1.1×1016 J yearly electricity consumption in Mongolia as of 2010[137][140]
9.0×1016 J mass-energy in 1 kilogram of antimatter (or matter)[141]
1017   1×1017 J energy released on the Earth's surface by the magnitude 9.1-9.3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake[142]
1.7×1017 J total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each second[143]
2.1×1017 J yield of the Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever tested (50 megatons)[144][145]
4.2×1017 J yearly electricity consumption of Norway as of 2008[137][146]
8×1017 J estimated energy released by the eruption of the Indonesian volcano, Krakatoa, in 1883[147][148]
1018 exa- (EJ) 1.4×1018 J yearly electricity consumption of South Korea as of 2009[137][149]
1019   1.4×1019 J yearly electricity consumption in the U.S. as of 2009[137][150]
1.4×1019J yearly electricity production in the U.S. as of 2009[151][152]
5×1019 J energy released in 1 day by an average hurricane in producing rain (400 times greater than the wind energy)[135]
6.4×1019 J yearly electricity consumption of the world as of 2008[153][154]
6.8×1019 J yearly electricity generation of the world as of 2008[153][155]
1020   5.0x1020 J total world annual energy consumption in 2010[156][157]
8.0×1020 J estimated global uranium resources for generating electricity 2005[158][159][160][161]
1021 zetta- (ZJ) 6.9×1021 J estimated energy contained in the world's natural gas reserves as of 2010[156][162]
7.9×1021 J estimated energy contained in the world's petroleum reserves as of 2010[156][163]
1022   1.5×1022J total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each day[143][164]
2.4×1022 J estimated energy contained in the world's coal reserves as of 2010[156][165]
2.9×1022 J identified global uranium-238 resources using fast reactor technology[158]
3.9×1022 J estimated energy contained in the world's fossil fuel reserves as of 2010[156][166]
4×1022 J estimated total energy released by the magnitude 9.1-9.3 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake[167]
1023   2.2×1023 J total global uranium-238 resources using fast reactor technology[158]
5×1023 J approximate energy released in the formation of the Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatán Peninsula[168]
1024 yotta- (YJ) 5.5×1024 J total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each year[143][169]
1025      
1026   1.3×1026 J conservative estimate of the energy released by the impact that created the Caloris basin on Mercury[citation needed]
3.8×1026 J total energy output of the Sun each second[170]
1027      
1028   3.8×1028 J kinetic energy of the Moon in its orbit around the Earth (counting only its velocity relative to the Earth)[171][172]
1029   2.1×1029 J rotational energy of the Earth[173][174][175]
1030      
1031   3.3×1031 J total energy output of the Sun each day[170][176]
1032   2.2×1032 J gravitational binding energy of the Earth[177]
1033   2.7×1033 J Earth's kinetic energy in its orbit[178]
1034   1.2×1034 J total energy output of the Sun each year[170][179]
1041   5.4×1041 J theoretical total mass-energy of the Earth[180][181]
6.9×1041 J gravitational binding energy of the Sun[177]
1043   5×1043 J total energy of all gamma rays in a typical gamma-ray burst[182][183]
1044   1-2×1044 J estimated energy released in a supernova;[184] sometimes referred to as a foe
1046   1×1046 J estimated energy released in a hypernova[185]
1047   1.8×1047 J theoretical total mass-energy of the Sun[186][187]
1058   4×1058 J visible mass-energy in our galaxy, the Milky Way[188][189]
1059   1×1059 J total mass-energy of the galaxy, including dark matter and dark energy[190][191]
1062   1-2×1062 J total mass-energy of the Local Supercluster, including dark matter[192]
1069   4×1069 J estimated total mass-energy of the observable universe[193]

[edit] SI multiples

SI multiples for joule (J)
Submultiples Multiples
Value Symbol Name Value Symbol Name
10−1 J dJ decijoule 101 J daJ decajoule
10−2 J cJ centijoule 102 J hJ hectojoule
10−3 J mJ millijoule 103 J kJ kilojoule
10−6 J µJ microjoule 106 J MJ megajoule
10−9 J nJ nanojoule 109 J GJ gigajoule
10−12 J pJ picojoule 1012 J TJ terajoule
10−15 J fJ femtojoule 1015 J PJ petajoule
10−18 J aJ attojoule 1018 J EJ exajoule
10−21 J zJ zeptojoule 1021 J ZJ zettajoule
10−24 J yJ yoctojoule 1024 J YJ yottajoule

This SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units (SI) unit whose name is derived from the proper name of a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case (J). When an SI unit is spelled out in English, it should always begin with a lower case letter (joule), except where any word would be capitalized, such as at the beginning of a sentence or in capitalized material such as a title. Note that "degree Celsius" conforms to this rule because the "d" is lowercase. —Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2.

[edit] See also

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[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Calculated: E_photon = hv = 6.626e-34 J-s * 1e6 Hz = 6.6e-28 J. In eV: 6.6e-28 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 4.1e-9 eV.
  2. ^ "Frequency of a Microwave Oven". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1998/HowardCheung.shtml. Retrieved 15 November 2011. 
  3. ^ Calculated: E_photon = hv = 6.626e-34 J-s * 2.45e8 Hz = 1.62e-24 J. In eV: 1.62e-24 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 1.0e-5 eV.
  4. ^ "Boomerang Nebula boasts the coolest spot in the Universe". JPL. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/releases/97/coldspot.html. Retrieved 13 November 2011. 
  5. ^ a b c d "Wavelength, Frequency, and Energy". Imagine the Universe. NASA. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/spectrum_chart.html. Retrieved 15 November 2011. 
  6. ^ Calculated: 1e3 J / 6.022e23 entities per mole = 1.7e-21 J per entity
  7. ^ Calculated: 1.381e-23 J/K * 298.15 K / 2 = 2.1e-21 J
  8. ^ a b c "Bond Lengths and Energies". Chem 125 notes. UCLA. http://www.doe-mbi.ucla.edu/CHEM125/bonds.html. Retrieved 13 November 2011. 
  9. ^ Calculated: 2 to 4 kJ/mol = 2e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 3.3e-21 J. In eV: 3.3e-21 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 0.02 eV. 4e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 6.7e-21 J. In eV: 6.7e-21 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 0.04 eV.
  10. ^ Ansari, Anjum. "Basic Physical Scales Relevant to Cells and Molecules". Physics 450. http://www.uic.edu/classes/phys/phys450/MARKO/N003.html. Retrieved 13 November 2011. 
  11. ^ Calculated: 4 to 13 kJ/mol. 4 kJ/mol = 4e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 6.7e-21 J. In eV: 6.7e-21 J / 1.6e-19 eV/J = 0.042 eV. 13 kJ/mol = 13e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 2.2e-20 J. In eV: 13e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol / 1.6e-19 eV/J = 0.13 eV.
  12. ^ Thomas, S.; Abdalla, F.; Lahav, O. (2010). "Upper Bound of 0.28 eV on Neutrino Masses from the Largest Photometric Redshift Survey". Physical Review Letters 105 (3). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.031301.  edit
  13. ^ Calculated: 0.28 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 4.5e-20 J
  14. ^ "CODATA Value: electron volt". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?tevj. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  15. ^ "BASIC LAB KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS". http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/classes/chemistry/chem467l/mardahl/basic.html. Retrieved 5 November 2011. "Visible wavelengths are roughly from 390 nm to 780 nm" 
  16. ^ Calculated: E = h * c / lambda. E_780_nm = 6.6e-34 kg-m^2/s * 3e8 m/s / (780e-9 m) = 2.5e-19 J. E_390 _nm = 6.6e-34 kg-m^2/s * 3e8 m/s / (390e-9 m) = 5.1e-19 J
  17. ^ Calculated: 50 kcal/mol * 4.184 J/calorie / 6.0e22e23 molecules/mol = 3.47e-19 J. (3.47e-19 J / 1.60e-19 eV/J = 2.2 eV.) and 200 kcal/mol * 4.184 J/calorie / 6.0e22e23 molecules/mol = 1.389e-18 J. (7.64e-19 J / 1.60e-19 eV/J = 8.68 eV.)
  18. ^ Thomas J Bowles (2000). P. Langacker. ed. Neutrinos in physics and astrophysics: from 10−33 to 1028 cm: TASI 98 : Boulder, Colorado, USA, 1-26 June 1998. World Scientific. p. 354. ISBN 9789810238872. http://books.google.com/books?id=QC5zi1N-1KMC&pg=PA354&lpg=PA354&dq=muon+neutrino+mass+170kev&source=bl&ots=0NDArur2q5&sig=Pv64mojKL34XqBYpCa4_B_7zg2s&hl=en&ei=Laa9TuunHqOriAKoh4WFAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 11 November 2011. "an upper limit ov m_v_u < 170 keV" 
  19. ^ Calculated: 170e3 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 2.7e-14 J
  20. ^ "electron mass energy equivalent". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mec2. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  21. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=6&num=1&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  22. ^ Muller, Richard A. (2002). "The Sun, Hydrogen Bombs, and the physics of fusion". http://muller.lbl.gov/teaching/physics10/old%20physics%2010/chapters%20%28old%29/7-fusion.htm. Retrieved 5 November 2011. "The neutron comes out with high energy of 14.1 MeV" 
  23. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=7&num=1.41&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  24. ^ "Energy From Uranium Fission". HyperPhysics. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/u235chn.html#c3. Retrieved 8 November 2011. 
  25. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=8&num=2.15&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  26. ^ "proton mass energy equivalent". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mpc2. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  27. ^ "neutron mass energy equivalent". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mnc2. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  28. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=9&num=1&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  29. ^ "deuteron mass energy equivalent". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mdc2. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  30. ^ "alpha particle mass energy equivalent". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?malc2. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  31. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=10&num=1&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  32. ^ Myers, Stephen. "The LEP Collider". CERN. http://sl-div.web.cern.ch/sl-div/history/lep_doc.html. Retrieved 14 November 2011. "the LEP machine energy is about 50 GeV per beam" 
  33. ^ Calculated: 50e9 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 8e-9 J
  34. ^ "W". PDG Live. Particle Data Group. http://pdglive.lbl.gov/Rsummary.brl?nodein=S043. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  35. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=9&num=80.4&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  36. ^ Amsler, C.; Doser, M.; Antonelli, M.; Asner, D.; Babu, K.; Baer, H.; Band, H.; Barnett, R. et al (2008). "Review of Particle Physics⁎". Physics Letters B 667: 1. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018. http://pdglive.lbl.gov/Rsummary.brl?nodein=S044&fsizein=1.  edit
  37. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=9&num=91.2&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  38. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=11&num=1&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  39. ^ Adams, John. "400 GeV Proton Synchrotron". Excertp from the CERN Annual Report 1976. CERN. http://sl-div.web.cern.ch/sl-div/history/sps_doc.html. Retrieved 14 November 2011. "A circulating proton beam of 400 GeV energy was first achieved in the SPS on 17 June 1976" 
  40. ^ Calculated: 400e9 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 6.4e-8 J
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Appendix B8—Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically". NIST Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB8.html. Retrieved 4 November 2011. "1.355818" 
  42. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=12&num=1&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  43. ^ "Electronvolt (eV)". Glossary. CERN. http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/en/Science/Glossary-en.php#T. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  44. ^ "LHC will run at 7 TeV in 2012". Physics World. http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/44982. Retrieved 12 November 2011. "3.5 TeV per proton beam" 
  45. ^ Calculated: 3.5e12 eV per beam * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 5.6e-7 J
  46. ^ "Coin specifications". United States Mint. http://www.usmint.gov/about_the_mint/?action=coin_specifications. Retrieved 2011-11-02. "11.340 g" 
  47. ^ Calculated: m*g*h = 11.34e-3 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 * 1 m = 1.1e-1 J
  48. ^ "Apples, raw, with skin (NDB No. 09003)". USDA Nutrient Database. USDA. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/. Retrieved 8 December 2011. 
  49. ^ Calculated: m*g*h = 1e-1 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 * 1 m = 1 J
  50. ^ "Specific Heat of Dry Air". Engineering Toolbox. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-specific-heat-capacity-d_705.html. Retrieved 2 November 2011. 
  51. ^ "Footnotes". NIST Guide to the SI. NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/footnotes.html#f09. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  52. ^ "Physical Motivations". ULTRA Home Page (EUSO project). Dipartimento di Fisica di Torino. http://www.dfg.unito.it/euso/physical-motivation.html. Retrieved 12 November 2011. 
  53. ^ Calculated: 5e19 eV * 1.6e-19 J/ev = 8 J
  54. ^ "Notes on the Troubleshooting and Repair of Electronic Flash Units and Strobe Lights and Design Guidelines, Useful Circuits, and Schematics". http://www.repairfaq.org/sam/strbfaq.htm. Retrieved 8 December 2011. "The energy storage capacitor for pocket cameras is typically 100 to 400 uF at 330 V (charged to 300 V) with a typical flash energy of 10 W-s." 
  55. ^ "The Fly's Eye (1981-1993)". HiRes. http://www.cosmic-ray.org/reading/flyseye.html#SEC10. Retrieved 14 November 2011. 
  56. ^ "Ionizing Radiation". General Chemistry Topic Review: Nuclear Chemistry. Bodner Research Web. http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch23/radiation.php. Retrieved 5 November 2011. 
  57. ^ "Vertical Jump Test". Topend Sports. http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/vertjump.htm. Retrieved 12 December 2011. "41-50 cm (males) 31-40 cm (females)" 
  58. ^ "Mass of an Adult". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/AlexSchlessingerman.shtml. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "70 kg" 
  59. ^ Kinetic energy at start of jump = potential energy at high point of jump. Using a mass of 70 kg and a high point of 40 cm => energy = m*g*h = 70 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 * 40e-2 m = 274 J
  60. ^ "Javelin Throw - Introduction". IAAF. http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/trackfield/newsid=9427.html. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 
  61. ^ Young, Michael. "Developing Event Specific Strength for the Javelin Throw". http://www.indianathrower.com/documents/javelinthrowbiomechanics.pdf. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "For elite athletes, the velocity of a javelin release has been measured in excess of 30m/s" 
  62. ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 0.8 kg * (30 m/s)^2 = 360 J
  63. ^ Greenspun, Philip. "Studio Photography". http://photo.net/learn/studio/primer. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "Most serious studio photographers start with about 2000 watts-seconds" 
  64. ^ "Discus Throw - Introduction". IAAF. http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/trackfield/newsid=9437.html. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 
  65. ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 2 kg * (24.4 m/s)^2 = 595.4 J
  66. ^ "Shot Put - Introduction". IAAF. http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/trackfield/newsid=9444.html. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 
  67. ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 7.26 kg * (14.7 m/s)^2 = 784 J
  68. ^ Kopp, G.; Lean, J. L. (2011). "A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters 38. doi:10.1029/2010GL045777. http://www.atmosp.physics.utoronto.ca/~jclub/journalclub_files/kopp_lean_2011.pdf.  edit
  69. ^ "Intermediate power ammunition for automatic assault rifles". Modern Firearms. World Guns. http://world.guns.ru/ammunition/intermediate-cartridges-e.html. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 
  70. ^ "Hammer Throw - Introduction". IAAF. http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/trackfield/newsid=9418.html. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 
  71. ^ Otto, Ralf M.. "HAMMER THROW WR PHOTOSEQUENCE - YURIY SEDYKH" (pdf). http://hammerthrow.org/wp-content/uploads/photosequences/otto_sedykh_wr.pdf. Retrieved 4 November 2011. "The total release velocity is 30.7 m/sec" 
  72. ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 7.26 kg * (30.7 m/s)^2 = 3420 J
  73. ^ 4.2e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent * (1 ton/1e6 grams) = 4.2e3 J/gram of TNT-equivalent
  74. ^ ".458 Winchester Magnum" (pdf). Accurate Powder. Western Powders Inc. http://www.accuratepowder.com/data/PerCaliber2Guide/Rifle/Standarddata(Rifle)/458Cal(11.63mm)/458%20Winchester%20Magnum%20pages%20339%20and%20340.pdf. Retrieved 7 September 2010. 
  75. ^ "Battery energy storage in various battery sizes". AllAboutBatteries.com. http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/Energy-tables.html. Retrieved 15 December 2011. 
  76. ^ "Energy Density of Carbohydrates". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2007/AnuragPanda.shtml. Retrieved 5 November 2011. 
  77. ^ "Energy Density of Protein". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/DavidDukhan.shtml. Retrieved 5 November 2011. 
  78. ^ "Energy Density of Fats". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/PingZhang.shtml. Retrieved 5 November 2011. 
  79. ^ "Energy Density of Gasoline". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/ArthurGolnik.shtml. Retrieved 5 November 2011. 
  80. ^ Calculated: E = 1/2 m*v^2 = 1/2 * (1e-3 kg) * (1e4 m/s)^2 = 5e4 J.
  81. ^ a b "List of Car Weights". LoveToKnow. http://cars.lovetoknow.com/List_of_Car_Weights. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "3000 to 12000 pounds" 
  82. ^ Calculated: Using car weights of 1 ton to 5 tons. E = 1/2 m*v^2 = 1/2 * (1e3 kg) * (55 mph * 1600 m/mi / 3600 s/hr) = 3.0e5 J. E = 1/2 * (5e3 kg) * (55 mph * 1600 m/mi / 3600 s/hr) = 15e5 J.
  83. ^ Muller, Richard A.. "Kinetic Energy in a meteor". Old Physics 10 notes. http://muller.lbl.gov/teaching/Physics10/old%20physics%2010/physics%2010%20notes/meteorKE.html. 
  84. ^ Calculated: KE = 1/2 * 2e3 kg * (32 m/s)^2 = 1.0e6 J
  85. ^ "Candies, MARS SNACKFOOD US, SNICKERS Bar (NDB No. 19155)". USDA Nutrient Database. USDA. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/. Retrieved 14 November 2011. 
  86. ^ a b "How to Balance the Food You Eat and Your Physical Activity and Prevent Obesity". Healthy Weight Basics. National Heart Lung and Blood Institutde. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/obesity/wecan/healthy-weight-basics/balance.htm. Retrieved 14 November 2011. 
  87. ^ Calculated: 2000 food calories = 2.0e6 cal * 4.814 J/cal = 9.6e6 J
  88. ^ Calculated: 1/2 * m * v^2 = 1/2 * 48.78 kg * (655 m/s)^2 = 1.0e7 J.
  89. ^ Calculated: 2600 food calories = 2.6e6 cal * 4.814 J/cal = 1.252e7 J
  90. ^ "Table 3.3 Consumer Price Estimates for Energy by Source, 1970-2009". Annual Energy Review. US Energy Information Administration. 19 Oct 2011. http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/annual/showtext.cfm?t=ptb0303. Retrieved 17 December 2011. "$28.90 per million BTU" 
  91. ^ Calculated J per dollar: 1 million BTU/$28.90 = 1e6 BTU / 28.90 dollars * 1.055e3 J/BTU = 3.65e7 J/dollar
  92. ^ Calculated cost per kWh: 1 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh / 3.65e7 J/dollar = 0.0986 dollar/kWh
  93. ^ "Energy in a Cubic Meter of Natural Gas". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/JanyTran.shtml. Retrieved 15 December 2011. 
  94. ^ "The Olympic Diet of Michael Phelps". WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20080813/the-olympic-diet-of-michael-phelps. Retrieved 28 December 2011. 
  95. ^ Cline, James E. D.. "Energy to Space". http://home.earthlink.net/~jedcline/ets.html. Retrieved 13 November 2011. "6.27E7 Joules / Kg" 
  96. ^ "Tour de France Winners, Podium, Times". Bike Race Info. http://bikeraceinfo.com/tdf/tdfindex.html. Retrieved 10 December 2011. 
  97. ^ "Watts/kg". Flamme Rouge. http://www.flammerouge.je/content/3_factsheets/constant/wattkilobench.htm. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  98. ^ Calculated: 90 hr * 3600 seconds/hr * 5 W/kg * 65 kg = 1.1e8 J
  99. ^ Smith, Chris. "How do Thunderstorms Work?". The Naked Scientists. http://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/articles/article/howdothunderstormswork-2/. Retrieved 15 November 2011. "It discharges about 1-10 billion joules of energy" 
  100. ^ "Powering up ATLAS's mega magnet". Spotlight on.... CERN. http://user.web.cern.ch/public/en/Spotlight/SpotlightATLAS-en.html. Retrieved 10 December 2011. "magnetic energy of 1.1 Gigajoules" 
  101. ^ "ITP Metal Casting: Melting Efficiency Improvement" (PDF). ITP Metal Casting. U.S. Department of Energy. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/metalcasting/pdfs/umr22_fs.pdf. Retrieved 14 November 2011. "377 kWh/mt" 
  102. ^ Calculated: 380 kW-h * 3.6e6 J/kW-h = 1.37e9 J
  103. ^ E_p = \sqrt{\frac{\hbar c^5}{G}}
  104. ^ "Power of a Human Heart". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/IradaMuslumova.shtml. Retrieved 10 December 2011. "The mechanical power of the human heart is ~1.3 watts" 
  105. ^ Calculated: 1.3 J/s * 80 years * 3.16e7 s/year = 3.3e9 J
  106. ^ "U.S. Household Electricity Uses: A/C, Heating, Appliances". U.S. HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY REPORT. EIA. http://www.eia.gov/emeu/reps/enduse/er01_us.html. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "For refrigerators in 2001, the average UEC was 1,239 kWh" 
  107. ^ Calculated: 1239 kWh * 3.6e6 J/kWh = 4.5e9 J
  108. ^ a b Energy Units, by Arthur Smith, 21 January 2005
  109. ^ "Top 10 Biggest Explosions". Listverse. http://listverse.com/2011/11/28/top-10-biggest-explosions/. Retrieved 10 December 2011. "a yield of 11 tons of TNT" 
  110. ^ Calculated: 11 tons of TNT-equivalent * 4.184e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent = 4.6e10 J
  111. ^ "Emission Facts: Average Annual Emissions and Fuel Consumption for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks". EPA. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/consumer/f00013.htm. Retrieved 12 December 2011. ""581 gallons of gasoline"" 
  112. ^ "200 Mile-Per-Gallon Cars?". http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/pseudosc/200mpgcar.htm. Retrieved 12 December 2011. "a gallon of gas ... 125 million joules of energy" 
  113. ^ Calculated: 581 gallons * 125e6 J/gal = 7.26e10 J
  114. ^ Calculated: 1e6 Watts * 86400 seconds/day = 8.6e10 J
  115. ^ "Energy From Uranium Fission". HyperPhysics. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/u235chn.html#c3. Retrieved 8 November 2011. 
  116. ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=8&num=2.15&From=ev&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  117. ^ Calculated: 3.44e-10 J/U-235-fission * 1e-3 kg / (235 amu per U-235-fission * 1.66e-27 amu/kg) = 8.82e-10 J
  118. ^ "A330-300 Dimensions & key data". Airbus. http://www.airbus.com/aircraftfamilies/passengeraircraft/a330family/a330-300/specifications/. Retrieved 12 December 2011. "97530 litres" 
  119. ^ a b c http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/aviation/air_bp/STAGING/local_assets/downloads_pdfs/a/air_bp_products_handbook_04004_1.pdf
  120. ^ Calculated: 97530 liters * 0.804 kg/L * 43.15 MJ/kg = 3.38e12 J
  121. ^ Calculated: 1e9 Watts * 3600 seconds/hour
  122. ^ Weston, Kenneth. "Chapter 10. Nuclear Power Plants" (pdf). Energy Conversion. http://www.personal.utulsa.edu/~kenneth-weston/chapter10.pdf. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "The thermal efficiency of a CANDU plant is only about 29%" 
  123. ^ "CANDU and Heavy Water Moderated Reactors". http://www.nucleartourist.com/type/candu.htm. Retrieved 12 December 2011. "fuel burnup in a CANDU is only 6500 to 7500 MWd per metric ton uranium" 
  124. ^ Calculated: 7500e6 Watt-days/tonne * (0.020 tonnes per bundle) * 86400 seconds/day = 1.3e13 J of burnup energy. Electricity = burnup * ~29% efficiency = 3.8e12 J
  125. ^ "747 Classics Technical Specs". Boeing. http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/pf/pf_classics.html. Retrieved 12 December 2011. "183,380 L" 
  126. ^ Calculated: 183380 liters * 0.804 kg/L * 43.15 MJ/kg = 6.36e12 J
  127. ^ "A380-800 Dimensions & key data". Airbus. http://www.airbus.com/aircraftfamilies/passengeraircraft/a380family/a380-800/specifications/. Retrieved 12 December 2011. "320,000 L" 
  128. ^ Calculated: 320,000 l * 0.804 kg/L * 43.15  MJ/kg = 11.1e12 J
  129. ^ "International Space Station: The ISS to Date". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/isstodate.html. Retrieved 2011-08-23. 
  130. ^ "The wizards of orbits". European Space Agency. http://www.esa.int/esaCP/ESA104MBAMC_FeatureWeek_0.html. Retrieved 10 December 2011. "The International Space Station, for example, flies at 7.7 km/s in one of the lowest practicable orbits" 
  131. ^ Calculated: E = 1/2 m.v² = 1/2 * 417000 kg * (7700m/s)² = 1.2e13 J
  132. ^ "What was the yield of the Hiroshima bomb?". Warbird's Forum. http://www.warbirdforum.com/hiroshim.htm. Retrieved 4 November 2011. "21 kt" 
  133. ^ Calculated: 21 kt = 21e9 grams of TNT-equivalent * 4.2e3 J/gram TNT-equivalent = 8.8e13 J
  134. ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=-3&num=1&From=kg&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  135. ^ a b "How much energy does a hurricane release?". FAQ : HURRICANES, TYPHOONS, AND TROPICAL CYCLONES. NOAA. http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/D7.html. Retrieved 12 November 2011. 
  136. ^ "The Gathering Storms". COSMOS. http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/3302/full. Retrieved 10 December 2011. 
  137. ^ a b c d e "Country Comparison :: Electricity - consumption". The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2042rank.html. Retrieved 11 December 2011. 
  138. ^ Calculated: 288.6e6 MWh * 3.60e6 J/MWh = 1.04e15 J
  139. ^ Calculated: 4.2e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent * 1e6 tons/megaton = 4.2e15 J/megaton of TNT-equivalent
  140. ^ Calculated: 3.02e9 MWh * 3.60e6 J/MWh = 1.09e16 J
  141. ^ Calculated: E = mc^2 = 1 kg * (2.998e8 m/s)^2 = 8.99e16 J
  142. ^ "USGS Energy and Broadband Solution". National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey. http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_e.html. Retrieved 9 December 2011. 
  143. ^ a b c The Earth has a cross section of 1.274×1014 square meters and the solar constant is 1366 watts per square meter.
  144. ^ "The Soviet Weapons Program - The Tsar Bomba". The Nuclear Weapon Archive. http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  145. ^ Calculated: 50e6 tons TNT-equivalent * 4.2e9 J/ton TNT-equivalent = 2.1e17 J
  146. ^ Calculated: 115.6e9 MWh * 3.60e6 J/MWh = 4.16e17 J
  147. ^ Alexander, R. McNeill (1989). [books.google.com/books?id=0q_1xk3SVKEC Dynamics of Dinosaurs and Other Extinct Giants]. Columbia University Press. p. 144. ISBN 0231066678. books.google.com/books?id=0q_1xk3SVKEC. "the explosion of the island volcano Krakatoa in 1883, had about 200 megatonnes energy." 
  148. ^ Calculated: 200e6 tons of TNT equivalent * 4.2e9 J/ton of TNT equivalent = 8.4e17 J
  149. ^ Calculated: 402e9 MWh * 3.60e6 J/MWh = 1.45e17 J
  150. ^ Calculated: 3.741e12 MWh * 3.600e6 J/MWh = 1.347e19 J
  151. ^ "United States". The World Factbook. USA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html. Retrieved 11 December 2011. 
  152. ^ Calculated: 3.953e12 MWh * 3.600e6 J/MWh = 1.423e19 J
  153. ^ a b "World". The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html. Retrieved 11 December 2011. 
  154. ^ Calculated: 17.8e12 MWh * 3.60e6 J/MWh = 6.41e19 J
  155. ^ Calculated: 18.95e12 MWh * 3.60e6 J/MWh = 6.82e19 J
  156. ^ a b c d e "Statistical Review of World Energy 2011". BP. http://www.bp.com/assets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2011.pdf. Retrieved 9 December 2011. 
  157. ^ Calculated: 12002.4e6 tonnes of oil equivalent * 42e9 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 5.0e20 J
  158. ^ a b c Global Uranium Resource
  159. ^ U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Generation
  160. ^ U.S. EIA International Energy Outlook 2007.
  161. ^ Final number is computed. Energy Outlook 2007 shows 15.9% of world energy is nuclear. IAEA estimates conventional uranium stock, at today's prices is sufficient for 85 years. Convert billion kilowatt-hours to joules then: 6.25×1019×0.159×85 = 8.01×1020.
  162. ^ Calculated: "6608.9 trillion cubic feet" => 6608.9e3 billion cubic feet * 0.025 million tonnes of oil equivalent/billion cubic feet * 1e6 tonnes of oil equivalent/million tonnes of oil equivalent * 42e9 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 6.9e21 J
  163. ^ Calculated: "188.8 thousand million tonnes" => 188.8e9 tonnes of oil * 42e9 J/tonne of oil = 7.9e21 J
  164. ^ Calculated: 1.27e14 m^2 * 1370 W/m^2 * 86400 s/day = 1.5e22 J
  165. ^ Calculated: 860938 million tonnes of coal => 860938e6 tonnes of coal * (1/1.5 tonne of oil equivalent / tonne of coal) * 42e9 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 2.4e22 J
  166. ^ Calculated: natural gas + petroleum + coal = 6.9e21 J + 7.9e21 J + 2.4e22 J = 3.9e22 J
  167. ^ "USGS, Harvard Moment Tensor Solution". National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey. 2004-12-26. http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_hrv.html. Retrieved 9 December 2011. 
  168. ^ http://www.geosc.psu.edu/people/faculty/personalpages/tbralower/Braloweretal1998.pdf
  169. ^ Calculated: 1.27e14 m^2 * 1370 W/m^2 * 86400 s/day = 5.5e24 J
  170. ^ a b c "Ask Us: Sun: Amount of Energy the Earth Gets from the Sun". Cosmicopia. NASA. http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/qa_sun.html#sunenergymass. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  171. ^ "Moon Fact Sheet". NASA. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html. Retrieved 2011-12-16. 
  172. ^ Calculated: KE = 1/2 * m * v^2. v = 1.023e3 m/s. m = 7.349e22 kg. KE = 1/2 * (7.349e22 kg) * (1.023e3 m/s)^2 = 3.845e28 J.
  173. ^ "Moment of Inertia--Earth". Eric Weisstein's World of Physics. http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/MomentofInertiaEarth.html. Retrieved 5 November 2011. 
  174. ^ Allain, Rhett. "Rotational energy of the Earth as an energy source". .dotphysics. Science Blogs. http://scienceblogs.com/dotphysics/2009/06/rotational-energy-of-the-earth-as-an-energy-source.php. Retrieved 5 November 2011. "the Earth takes 23.9345 hours to rotate" 
  175. ^ Calculated: E_rotational = 1/2 * I * w^2 = 1/2 * (8.0e37 kg m^2) * (2*pi/(23.9345 hour period * 3600 seconds/hour))^2 = 2.1e29 J
  176. ^ Calculated: 3.8e26 J/s * 86400 s/day = 3.3e31 J
  177. ^ a b U = \frac{(3/5)GM^2}{r}
    Chandrasekhar, S. 1939, An Introduction to the Study of Stellar Structure (Chicago: U. of Chicago; reprinted in New York: Dover), section 9, eqs. 90–92, p. 51 (Dover edition)
    Lang, K. R. 1980, Astrophysical Formulae (Berlin: Springer Verlag), p. 272
  178. ^ http://www.uwgb.edu/DutchS/pseudosc/flipaxis.htm
  179. ^ Calculated: 3.8e26 J/s * 86400 s/day * 365.25 days/year = 1.2e34 J
  180. ^ "Earth: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. NASA. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth&Display=Facts. Retrieved 2011-09-29. 
  181. ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=24&num=6.0&From=kg&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  182. ^ Frail, D. A.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Sari, R.; Djorgovski, S. G.; Bloom, J. S.; Galama, T. J.; Reichart, D. E.; Berger, E. et al (2001). "Beaming in Gamma-Ray Bursts: Evidence for a Standard Energy Reservoir" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal 562: L55. doi:10.1086/338119. http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0102/0102282v1.pdf.  edit "the gamma-ray energy release, corrected for geometry, is narrowly clustered around 5 * 10^50 erg"
  183. ^ Calculated: 5e50 erg * 1e-7 J/erg = 5e43 J
  184. ^ Khokhlov, A.; Mueller, E.; Hoeflich, P.; Mueller; Hoeflich (1993). "Light curves of Type IA supernova models with different explosion mechanisms". Astronomy and Astrophysics 270 (1–2): 223–248. Bibcode 1993A&A...270..223K. 
  185. ^ "A Hypernova: The Super-charged Supernova and its link to Gamma-Ray Bursts". Imagine the Universe!. NASA. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/why_hyper.html. Retrieved 9 December 2011. "With a power about 100 times that of the already astonishingly powerful "typical" supernova" 
  186. ^ "Sun Fact Sheet". NASA. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html. Retrieved 2011-10-15. 
  187. ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=30&num=2.0&From=kg&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  188. ^ Jim Brau. "The Milky Way Galaxy". http://physics.uoregon.edu/~jimbrau/astr123/Notes/Chapter23.html#mass. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  189. ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=41&num=4&From=kg&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  190. ^ Karachentsev, I. D.; Kashibadze, O. G. (2006). "Masses of the local group and of the M81 group estimated from distortions in the local velocity field". Astrophysics 49(1): 3–18. doi:10.1007/s10511-006-0002-6.
  191. ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Convert?exp=42&num=1.2&From=kg&To=j&Action=Convert+value+and+show+factor. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 
  192. ^ Einasto, M. et al (December 2007). "The richest superclusters. I. Morphology". Astronomy and Astrophysics 476 (2): 697–711. Bibcode 2007A&A...476..697E. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078037. 
  193. ^ http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/980211b.html
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