Paraiyar

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Paraiyar
Regions with significant populations
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Fiji, South Africa
Languages

Tamil, Malayalam
Religion

Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity
Related ethnic groups

Tamil people

Paraiyar (also known as Parayar, Sambavar and Adi Dravidar; anglicised by Europeans as Pariah) are a social group found in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, as well as in Sri Lanka. In northern Tamil Nadu they are known as Paraiyars, whilst in the southern areas of that state they are traditionally known as Sambavar but prefer to be called Adi Dravidar.[1]

The Indian census of 2001 reported the Paraiyan population about 7.5 million in Tamil Nadu,[2] where they form the majority among the Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.[1]

Contents

[edit] Etymology

Robert Caldwell conjectured that the Paraiyar name was derived from the Tamil word Parai (a drum) because some members of the community act as drummers at marriages, funerals, village festivals, and on occasions when Government or commercial announcements are proclaimed. H. A. Stuart, however, later recorded in the 1891 Madras Census Report that "it is only one section of Paraiyars that act as drummers, nor is the occupation confined to the Paraiyars. It seems in the highest degree improbable that a large, and at one time powerful, community should owe its name to an occasional occupation, which one of its divisions shares with other castes." He further claimed that the word was unknown in old works such as the Divakaram Tamil dictionary of the 11th century AD.[3] This claim was at least in part contradicted by the Census Report for 1901. written by W. Francis, which refers to an inscription of the Chola king Raja Raja of around the eleventh century in which the Paraiyar caste is called by its name.[4]

Gustav Salomon Oppert was another who thought that the derivation from Parai was unlikely. He argued that it was a "weak foundation" and that the name was "most probably an afterthought, the more easily explicable since the lower classes delighted in the noise of the drum, and the name of the drum-beating class was transferred to the instrument by which the Pariah made his presence known." He thought the name to be "intimately connected" with the names of other communities such as the Paravars, Paradas, Bhars and Mhars.[5]

[edit] History

The Paraiyars enjoyed a privileged position in society during the Kalabhras dynasty period, 300 - 600 AD.[citation needed] An eleventh century A.D. inscription states paraiyars had two sub-divisions, the Nesavu or weavers, and Ulavu or ploughmen and this caste had its own hamlets, wells and burning-grounds.[6] One sub-group of Paraiyars - the Valluvans - were renowned as magicians, astrologers and were priests to the Pallava kings.[4]

Caldwell says that, There were various errors respecting the origin of the Pareiyas and their position in the caste scale, as low-caste, as in Madras presidency they were majority of the domestic servants and more frequently brought into contact with Europeans[7] and Anglo-Indians who are not acquainted with the vernacular languages, often designated Pareiyas as outcasts, as persons who are without caste, or as persons who have no caste to lose.[8]

and writes that

" There are various traditions current amongst the Pareiyas to the effect that the position which their caste occupied in native society at some former period was very different from what it is now, and much more honourable. The Tamil Pareiyas sometimes boast that at an ancient period theirs was the most distinguished caste in the country. They say that they were reduced to their present position, as a punishment for the haughty behaviour of their ancestors to some ancient king ; on which occasion the Vellalas, or caste of cultivators, who are now called Tamirar, or Tamilians, par excellence, were raised to the place which had previously been occupied by themselves."[9]

He quotes an unpublished Vatteluttu inscription, believed to be of the ninth century, in which it is noted that "Sri Valluvam Puvanavan,the Uvacchan(or temple ministrant),will employ six men daily, and do the temple service." The inference is that the Valluvan was a man of recognised priestly rank, and of great influence. The prefix Sri is a notable honorific. By itself this inscription would prove little, but the whole legendary history of the greatest of all Tamil poets, Tiruvalluvar, " the holy Valluvan," confirms all that can be deduced from it.[4]

[The missionary [Jean-Antoine Dubois]] writes:

In very early days however the separation between the Parayas and others do not appear to have been so marked as at present. Though relegated to the lower grade in the social scale Parayas were not then placed absolutely outside and beyond the line of demarcation between them and the Sudras being almost imperceptible and they are even today considered to be direct descendants of the better class of agricultural labourers. The Tamil Vellalas and the Vockalikas (Vockaliyar) do not disdain to call them their children.[10]

Caldwell states that

The Pareiyas constitute a well-defined, distinct, ancient caste, independent of every other; and the Pareiya caste has subdivisions of its own, its own peculiar usages, its own traditions, and its own jealousy of the encroachments of the castes which are above it and below it. They constitute, perhaps, the most numerous caste in the Tamil country. In the city of Madras they number twenty-one per cent, of the Hindu population.[11]

and that

" Though the Pareiyas themselves will admit that they belong—or, as they would prefer to say, that they belong at present—to the lowest division of castes, and are not fabled to have sprung from even the least noble part of Brahma; nevertheless, they are not the lowest of the castes comprised in this lowest division. I am acquainted with several castes in various parts of the Tamil country, which are considered lower than the Pareiyas in the social scale ... It is not generally known by those Europeans who sympathise in the wrongs of the Pareiyas, that, whenever they have an opportunity, the Pareiyas deal out the very same treatment to the members of castes which are inferior to their own — e.g., the caste of shoemakers, and the lowest caste of washermen; that they are, equally with the higher castes, filled with that compound of pride of birth, exclusiveness, and jealousy, called 'caste feeling'."[12]

The ethnographer Edgar Thurston notes that there is some evidence that their social position may at one time have been higher than it was when he was writing in 1909,[4] and also states that Some of their privileges, duties and facts show that they represent the original owners of the land, subjected by conquerors.[6] Some scholars presume that Paraiyars must have been followers of Buddhism who lost their status in society during the revival of the Agamic cults.[citation needed] The writers Thiruvalluvar and Auvaiyar, as well as the architect of Hastinapur, were all Paraiyars.[13]

[edit] Caste sub-divisions

The Madras Presidency census of 1891 recorded 348 sub-divisions, of which the following were most prevalent:[14]

  • Amma found chiefly in Tanjore and Madura
  • Katti in Salem and Trichinopoly
  • Kizhakkatti (eastern) in Salem
  • Koliyan (weavers) in Chingleput, Tanjore and Trichinopoly
  • Konga in Salem
  • Korava in Coimbatore
  • Kottai (fort) in South Arcot
  • Morasu (drum) in Salem
  • Mottai in Madura
  • Pacchai (green) in Coimbatore
  • Samban in South Arcot
  • Sangidum (sanku, conch, or chank shell) in Coimbatore
  • Sozhia (natives of the Sozha or Chola country) in Tanjore and Madura
  • Tangalan in North and South Arcot, Chingleput, Salem, and Trichinopoly
  • Valangamattu in South Arcot.

The members of the various sub-divisions do not intermarry.[14] The Morasu Paraiyans, included in the above list, are Canarese Holeyas, who have settled in the Tamil country.[14]

Other additional sub-divisions:

Aruththukattdtha, or those who, having once cut the tali-string, do not tie it a second time, those who do not permit remarriage of widows. Valai.(a net), Paraiyans who hunt. Thatha or Thathan is the name given to mendicants who profess Vaishnavism. Such Paraiyans are Vaishna- vites, and some are beggars.[14]

Valluvans, Valluva Pandarams or Valluva Paraiyans:

Thurston quotes that, Among Tamil Paraiyans there are families in almost every village, who hold a kind of sacerdotal rank in the esteem of their fellows. They are called Valluvans, Valluva Pandarams, or Valluva Paraiyans. Their position and authority depend largely on their own astuteness. Sometimes they are respected even by Brahmans for their powers as exorcists. It is often impossible to see any difference between the Valluvans and the ordinary Paraiyans, except that their houses are usually a little apart from other houses in the cheri. They take a leading part in local Paraiya festivals. At marriages they pronounce the blessing when the tali is tied round the bride's neck. [15]

In cases of supposed possession by demons, or by the mothers, the Valluvan is consulted as to the meaning of the portent, and takes part in driving the spirit out of the victim, sometimes using violence and blows to compel the spirit to deliver its message and be gone. [16]

Thurston notes that, The Census Report, 1901, states that Valluvans do not eat or intermarry with other sections of the Paraiyans and he was unable to confirm this, and is inclined to doubt whether it is generally true. [17]

Francis notes that, the term Paraiyan "is now almost a generic one, and the caste is split up into many sub-divisions, which differ in manners and ways. For example, the Koliyans, who are weavers, and the Valluvans, who are medicine men and priests and wear the sacred thread, will not intermarry or eat with the others, and are now practically distinct castes." As occupational titles of Paraiyans, Francis gives Urumikkaran and Pambaikkaraii, or those who play on drums (urumi and pambai), and Podarayan or Podara Vannan, who are washermen. The title Valangamattan, or people of the right-hand division, is assumed by some Paraiyans.[14]

[edit] Right-hand caste faction

Paraiyars belong to the Valangai ("Right-hand caste faction"). Some of them assume the title Valangamattan ("people of the right-hand division").[18] The Valangai comprised castes with an agricultural basis while the Idangai consisted of castes involved in manufacturing.[19] Valangai, which was better organized politically,[20] and has most of the agriculture-based higher castes. The Paraiyas are its chief support, as a proof of which they use the title ‘Valangai-Mougattar’, or friends of the Right-hand.[21]

Caldwell states that "In the insane dispute about pre-eminence, which is always being carried on in Southern India between the 'right hand' and the 'left hand' castes, the Pareiyas (Paraiyars) range themselves on the right hand."[22]

[edit] Paraiyar and Brahmin connection legend

In a note on the Paraiyans of the Trichinopoly district, F. R. Hemingway who was the District collector of then Trichinopoly district and authored the Gazetteer of Trichinoply District, writes as follows.

They have a very exalted account of their lineage, saying that they are descended from the priest SalaSambavan, who was employed in a Siva temple to worship the god with offerings of beef, but who incurred the anger of the god by one day concealing a portion of the meat, to give it to his pregnant wife, and was therefore turned into a Paraiyan. The god appointed his brother to do duty instead of him, and the Paraiyans say that Brahman priests are their cousins. For this reason they wear a sacred thread at their marriages and funerals.At the festival of the village goddesses, they repeat an extravagant praise of their caste, which runs as follows.

'The Paraiyans were the first creation, the first who wore
the sacred thread, the uppermost in the social scale, the
differentiators of castes, the winners of laurels. They
have been seated on the white elephant, the Vira
Sambavans who beat the victorious drum.'

It is a curious fact that, at the feast of the village goddess, a Paraiyan is honoured by being invested with a sacred thread for the occasion by the pujari (priest) of the temple, by having a turmeric thread tied to his wrists, and being allowed to head the procession. This, the Paraiyans say, is owing to their exalted origin.[23]

Thurston says that

Stuart mentions that the Valluvans(Paraiya priests) were priests to the Pallava kings before the introduction of the Brahmans, and even for some time after it.[4]

Thurston quotes

Clayton records that he has heard well authenticated instances of Brahman women worshipping at Paraiyan shrines in order to procure children, and states that he once saw a Paraiyan exorciser treating a Brahman by uttering mantrams (consecrated formulae), and waving a sickle up and down the sufferer's back, as he stood in a threshing floor.[24]

The following- extract is taken from a note on the Paraiyans of Travancore by N. Subramani Aiyar.

In the Keralolpathi, they are classed as one of the sixteen hill tribes. Concerning their origin the following tradition is current. They were originally Brahmans, but, on certain coparceners partitioning the common inheritance, the carcase of a cow, which was one of the articles to be partitioned, was burnt as being useless. A drop of oil fell from the burning animal on to one of the parties, and he licked it up with his tongue. For this act he was cast out of society, and his descendants, under the name of Paraiyas, became cow-eaters.[23]

Thurston quotes G. Matthan, who noted the Paraiyars of Northern Travancore held a traditional belief "that they were a division of the Brahmans, who were entrapped into a breach of caste by their enemies, through making them eat beef."[25]

Thurston also notes[26]

Prathamasaki: These Brahmans follow the white Yajur Veda, and are hence called Sukla Yejur Vedis. The white Yajus forms the first fifteen sakas of the Yejur Veda, and this is in consequence sometimes called Prathamasaka.In the Tanjore district, the Prathamasakis are said to be known as Madyana Paraiyans. The following quaint legend is recorded in the Gazetteer of that district: " The god of the Tiruvalur temple was entreated by a pujari of this place (Koiltirumulam) to be present in the village at a sacrifice in his (the god's) honour. The deity consented at length, but gave warning that he would come in a very unwelcome shape.He appeared as a Paraiyan (Pariah) with beef on his back, and followed by the four Vedas in the form of dogs, and took his part in the sacrifice thus accoutred and attended. All the Brahmans who were present ran away, and the god was so incensed that he condemned them to be Paraiyans for one hour in the day, from noon till 1 P.M., ever afterwards. There is a class of Brahmans called midday Paraiyans, who are found in several districts, and a colony of whom reside at Sedanipuram five miles from Nannilam. It is believed throughout the Tanjore district that the midday Paraiyans are the descendants of the Brahmans thus cursed by the god. They are supposed to expiate their defilement by staying outside their houses for an hour and a half every day at midday, and to bathe afterwards ; and, if they do this, they are much respected.

and that

In Kerala the most important Legend of Parayi petta panthirukulam, Pakkanar ( Paraiyar) was one of the twelve children of a great Brahmin Vararuchi and his low caste wife. The story or myth states that During Vararuchi's travels along the Nila river, his wife had given birth to twelve children. The children left out in the forest were subsequently found, adopted and raised by families belonging to different communities, recognised one another as they grew up. These twelve sons are: Mezhathol Agnihothri (Brahmanan), Pakkanar (Parayan), Rajakan (Washerman), Naranath Bhranthan (Elayathu, a lower class Brahmanan), Kaarakkal Maatha (high caste Nair), Akavoor Chaathan (Vysyan), Vaduthala Nair (Nair Soldier), Vallon (Thiruvalluvar of Tamil Nadu), Uppukottan (Muslim), Paananaar (Paanan, a low caste of country musicians), Perumthachan (carpenter), Vaayillaakkunnilappan (deity).[27]

[edit] British colonial era

Thurston states during his time(1909),The Paraiyars are very largely employed as domestic servants by Europeans and the Christian Paraiyas had become ' Native Christian ' caste, and achieved University honours, the wearing of the surplice, and the rod of the pedagogue,[28] and a number of them emigrated to Ceylon, Mauritius, South Africa, the West Indies, the Straits Settlements, and to Fiji.[29]

[edit] Paraiyars as a Disinherited sons

In the second half of the 19th century Paraiyars are described as ‘disinherited sons of the earth’ are found again and again in official documents and reformist tracts [30][31] . This new definition of the Paraiyars is first found in a text of Francis Whyte Ellis, from the year 1818, in which he writes that the Paraiyars “affect to consider themselves as the real proprietors of the soil”. In 1894,William Goudie, a Weslyan missionary states that the Paraiyars are selfevidently the “disinherited children of the soil”. [32]

[edit] Intermarriage

Some Chinese convicts deported from the Straits Settlements were sent to Madras in India, the "Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1" reported an incident where the Chinese convicts escaped and killed the police sent to apprehend them[33][34][35] These escaped Chinese convicts had children with Tamil Paraiyan women, who were documented by Edgar Thurston.[36][37]

Edgar Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and , Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[38][39] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[40][41][42][43][44] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"[45][46][47][48][49] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[50]

[edit] Paraiyars in Sakya Buddha Society and Theosophical Society

Iyothee Thass a Siddha Doctor by occupation belonged to a Paraiyar elite, In 1898 Iyothi Thass and a large number of his followers converted to Buddhism and founded the “Sakya Buddha Society” (cākkaiya putta caṅkam) with the influential mediation of Henry Steel Olcott of the Theosophical Society. Olcott subsequently and greatly supported the Tamil Paraiyar Buddhists.[51]

[edit] ātitirāvịţa jaṉa capai (Adidravida jana sabai) and the term ātitirāvịţa (Adidravida)

The Parayar Mahajana Sabha was founded by Rettamalai Srinivasan in 1892 and in 1895 Iyothee Thass founded the “People’s Assembly of Urdravidians” (ātitirāvịţa jaṉa capai)or(Adidravida jana sabai) in Madras. Maichel Bergundier states that, It was the circles around Iyothee Thass claimed the description ‘Urdravidian’ (ātitirāviţar) or (Adidravidar), still a common synonym for Paraiyars in South India and Iyothee Thass Was the first to introduce the concept ātitirāvịţa (Adidravida) into political discussion and In the 1920s and 1930s E.V.Ramasami ensured the wide dissemination of this term.[52]

[edit] List of Paraiyars

[edit] Legendary poet and poetess

[edit] Religious and spiritual leaders

[edit] Social reformers and activists

  • Iyothee Thass Pandithar (1845–1914), founded the Sakya Buddhist Society (also known as Indian Buddhist Association)
  • Rettamalai Srinivasan (1860–1945), a Dalit activist, politician from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
  • M. C. Rajah (1883–1943), a Dalit politician, social and political activist from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu
  • J. Shivashanmugam Pillai (1901–1975), first Dalit mayor of Madras and first speaker of Madras Legislative Assembly since India's independence.
  • N. Sivaraj (1892–1964), Indian lawyer and politician. former Mayor of Madras and Member of Lok Sabha.

[edit] Politicians

[edit] Mathematician

  • Christie Jayaratnam Eliezer, a well-known Sri Lankan mathematician, who worked under Paul Dirac. He is widely accredited for one of his collaborations better known as theory of Eliezer-Dirac.

[edit] Act and cinefields

[edit] Literature

  • Bama (b. 1958), Tamil writer
  • Meena Kandasamy, Chennai based English writer, poet, orator, social activist.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

[edit] Citations

  1. ^ a b Singh, Kumar Suresh, ed. People of India. p. 42. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=DEAlCTxJowUC&pg=PA40&dq=Adi+Dravidar#v=onepage&q=Adi%20Dravidar&f=false. 
  2. ^ (pdf)Indian Census figures
  3. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, p. 77.
  4. ^ a b c d e Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, p. 82.
  5. ^ Oppert (1893), p. 32.
  6. ^ a b Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, pp. 82-83.
  7. ^ Caldwell (1875), p. 543.
  8. ^ Caldwell (1875), p. 545.
  9. ^ Caldwell (1875), pp. 547-548.
  10. ^ Hindu manners, customs and ceremonies. Dubois, J. A. (Jean Antoine),1899(Page.52.)
  11. ^ Caldwell (1875), p. 545.
  12. ^ Caldwell (1875), pp. 545-546.
  13. ^ a b c Irschick (2001), p. 177.
  14. ^ a b c d e Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, pp. 80-81.
  15. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, pp.107.
  16. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, pp.108.
  17. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, pp.108.
  18. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. VI. Edgar Thurston and Rangachari, K. 1909.(Page.81,91.)
  19. ^ Gift Siromoney (1975). "More inscriptions from the Tambaram area". Madras Christian College Magazine, Vol. 44, 1975. Madras Christian College Magazine. http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambarammore.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-21. 
  20. ^ Caste Ideology and Interaction, Pg 105
  21. ^ Hindu manners, customs and ceremonies. Dubois, J. A. (Jean Antoine),1899(Page.25.)
  22. ^ Caldwell (1875), p. 546.
  23. ^ a b Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. VI. Edgar Thurston and Rangachari, K. 1909.(Page.84,85.)
  24. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, p. 84.
  25. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, p. 139
  26. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. I, pp. 344-345.
  27. ^ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (First published in 1909). Castes and tribes of Southern India. 1. New Delhi: J. Jetley for Asian Educational Services. pp. 120–124. 
  28. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, pp. 114.
  29. ^ Thurston (1909), Vol. VI, pp. 89.
  30. ^ (Irschick 1994: 153–190)
  31. ^ Michael Bergunder, Historiographia Linguistica volume 31:1(2004), Article:Contested past, p 68.
  32. ^ Michael Bergunder, Historiographia Linguistica volume 31:1(2004), Article:Contested past, p 68.
  33. ^ Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Government Press. 1908. p. 263. http://books.google.com/books?id=x3wat-7xgdcC&pg=PA263&dq=twelve+of+the+Chinamen+%22+broke+out+during+a+very+stormy+night,+and+parties+of+armed+police+were+sent+out+to+scour+the+hills+for+them.+They+were+at+last+arrested&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kZRWT-joG_SM0QGurp2ICg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=twelve%20of%20the%20Chinamen%20%22%20broke%20out%20during%20a%20very%20stormy%20night%2C%20and%20parties%20of%20armed%20police%20were%20sent%20out%20to%20scour%20the%20hills%20for%20them.%20They%20were%20at%20last%20arrested&f=false. Retrieved March 2 2012. "Mr. Chisholm was the architect of the new buildings. The CHAP. X. boys' part is designed in the Italian Gothic style, and is a two- Educational storeyed construction forming three sides of a quadrangle Institutions. a feature of which is the campanile, 130 feet in height. The girls were at first placed in the building intended for the hospital. * Much of the building work was done by Chinese convicts sent to the Madras jails froln the Straits Settlements (where there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings' in which they were confined at Lovedale. In 186^ seven of them tjot away and it was several days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to search. On the 28th July in the following year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were found in their possession, and one of the parties of police had disappeared—an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over the country for the party, and at length, on the 15th September, their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walaghat, bnlf way down the Sisp^ra'gha't path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. It turned out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly attacked the police and killed them with their own weapons. In 1884 the benefits of the Lawrence Asylum were extended by the admission to it of the orphan children of Volunteers who had served in the Presidency for seven years and upwards, it being however expressly provided that children of British soldiers were not to be superseded or excluded by this concession. In 1899 the standard of instruction in the Asylum was raised to the upper secondary grade. In 1901 the rules of the institution, which had been twice altered since 1864 to meet the changes which had occurred, were again revised and considerably modified. They are printed in full in the annual reports. In 1903, owing to the South Indian Railway requiring for its new terminus at Egmore the buildings then occupied by the Civil Orphan Asylums of Madras, Government suggested that these should be moved to the premises on the Poonamallee Road in which the Military Female Orphan Asylum was established and that the girls in the latter, who numbered about 100, should be transferred to the Lawrsnce Asylum. The transfer was" 
  34. ^ W. Francis (1994). The Nilgiris. Volume 1 of Madras district gazetteers (reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 263. ISBN 8120605462. http://books.google.com/books?id=luXS-8vTrJQC&pg=PA263&dq=twelve+of+the+Chinamen+%22+broke+out+during+a+very+stormy+night,+and+parties+of+armed+police+were+sent+out+to+scour+the+hills+for+them.+They+were+at+last+arrested&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kZRWT-joG_SM0QGurp2ICg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=twelve%20of%20the%20Chinamen%20%22%20broke%20out%20during%20a%20very%20stormy%20night%2C%20and%20parties%20of%20armed%20police%20were%20sent%20out%20to%20scour%20the%20hills%20for%20them.%20They%20were%20at%20last%20arrested&f=false. Retrieved March 2 2012. 
  35. ^ The Nilgiris. Concept Publishing Company. p. 263. http://books.google.com/books?id=MnURimXbB98C&pg=PA263&dq=twelve+of+the+Chinamen+%22+broke+out+during+a+very+stormy+night,+and+parties+of+armed+police+were+sent+out+to+scour+the+hills+for+them.+They+were+at+last+arrested&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kZRWT-joG_SM0QGurp2ICg&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=twelve%20of%20the%20Chinamen%20%22%20broke%20out%20during%20a%20very%20stormy%20night%2C%20and%20parties%20of%20armed%20police%20were%20sent%20out%20to%20scour%20the%20hills%20for%20them.%20They%20were%20at%20last%20arrested&f=false. Retrieved March 2 2012. 
  36. ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. http://books.google.com/books?ei=wpFWT-jhCeHc0QHg5e2CCg&id=UkwLAAAAIAAJ&dq=In+Gudalur%2C+enquiries+were+made+regarding+the+present+position+of+the+Tamil-Chinese+cross+described+by+Thurston+%281909%29.+It+may+be+recalled+here+that+Thurston+reported+the+above+cross+resulting+from+the+union+of+some+Chinese+convicts%2C+deported+from+the+Straits+Settlement%2C+and+local+Tamil+Paraiyan&q=enquiries+union+deported+local. Retrieved March 2 2012. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* ( Received on 21 September 1959 ) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan" 
  37. ^ Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2. Government press. 1909. p. 99. http://books.google.com/books?ei=S39WT_auFons0gGA5uz7CQ&id=7WRTAAAAYAAJ&dq=tamil+chinese+1909+thurston&q=nilgiri+jail+1868+chinamen. Retrieved March 2 2012. "99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight" 
  38. ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. http://books.google.com/books?id=DvgSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA31&dq=ON+A+CHINESE-TAMIL+Halting+in+the+course+of+a+recent+anthropological+expedition+on-+the+western+side&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-IBWT7mxCMbl0QG33OnHCg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=ON%20A%20CHINESE-TAMIL%20Halting%20in%20the%20course%20of%20a%20recent%20anthropological%20expedition%20on-%20the%20western%20side&f=false. Retrieved March 2 2012. "ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and , Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:" 
  39. ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 8120618572. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ca6wmDzhMDoC&pg=PA31&dq=ON+A+CHINESE-TAMIL+Halting+in+the+course+of+a+recent+anthropological+expedition+on-+the+western+side&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-IBWT7mxCMbl0QG33OnHCg&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ON%20A%20CHINESE-TAMIL%20Halting%20in%20the%20course%20of%20a%20recent%20anthropological%20expedition%20on-%20the%20western%20side&f=false. Retrieved March 2 2012. 
  40. ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. http://books.google.com/books?id=DvgSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved March 2 2012. "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with the length of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80"1; 801 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78-5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Pariah (76"8). How great is the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Pariah man is only 13"7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five only, was 14 3, 14, and 13"7 cm. respectively. Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the character of the nose; the nasal iudex, in the case of each child (68"1 ; 717; 727; 68'3), bearing a much closer relation to that of the long nosed father (71'7) than to the typical Pariah nasal index of the broadnosed mother (78-7). It will be interesting to note, hereafter, what is the future of the younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the physical characters, temperament, improvement or deterioration, fecundity, and other points relating to the cross-breed resulting from the union of Chinese and Tamil." 
  41. ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 8120618572. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ca6wmDzhMDoC&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved March 2 2012. 
  42. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. 1987. p. 99. ISBN 8120602889. http://books.google.com/books?ei=-IBWT7mxCMbl0QG33OnHCg&id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ&dq=ON+A+CHINESE-TAMIL+Halting+in+the+course+of+a+recent+anthropological+expedition+on-+the+western+side&q=chinaman+dark+skinned+. Retrieved March 2 2012. "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been oblidged to "cut him tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil paraiyan," 
  43. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. 1987. p. 98. ISBN 8120602889. http://books.google.com/books?ei=-IBWT7mxCMbl0QG33OnHCg&id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ&dq=ON+A+CHINESE-TAMIL+Halting+in+the+course+of+a+recent+anthropological+expedition+on-+the+western+side&q=pariah+women+colony. Retrieved March 2 2012. 
  44. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. 1987. p. 99. http://books.google.com/books?ei=-IBWT7mxCMbl0QG33OnHCg&id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ&dq=ON+A+CHINESE-TAMIL+Halting+in+the+course+of+a+recent+anthropological+expedition+on-+the+western+side&q=chinaman+dark+skinned+paraiyanisbn=8120602889. Retrieved March 2 2012. 
  45. ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. http://books.google.com/books?id=2ec4AAAAIAAJ&q=Thurston+found+the+Chinese+element+to+be+predominant+among+the+offspring+as+will+be+evident+from+his+description.+'The+mother+was+a+typical+dark-skinned+Tamil+Paraiyan.+The+colour+of+the+children+was+more+closely+allied+to+the+yellowish&dq=Thurston+found+the+Chinese+element+to+be+predominant+among+the+offspring+as+will+be+evident+from+his+description.+'The+mother+was+a+typical+dark-skinned+Tamil+Paraiyan.+The+colour+of+the+children+was+more+closely+allied+to+the+yellowish&hl=en&sa=X&ei=T4pWT7XFJOLz0gGEn6mtCg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA. Retrieved March 2 2012. "Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish" 
  46. ^ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. http://books.google.com/books?ei=lItWT9aiIIXo0QHv_sS2Cg&id=NpQzAAAAIAAJ&dq=Sarkar+%281959%29+published+a+pedigree+showing+Tamil-Chinese-English+crosses+in+a+place+located+in+the+Nilgiris.+Thurston+%281909%29+mentioned+an+instance+of+a+mating+between+a+Chinese+male+with+a+Tamil+Pariah+female.+Man+%28Deka+1954%29+described&q=male+Pariah+female. Retrieved March 2 2012. "Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described" 
  47. ^ Man in India, Volumes 34-35. A. K. Bose. 1954. p. 272. http://books.google.com/books?id=iY1RAQAAIAAJ&q=(c)+Tamil+(female)+and+African+(male)+(Thurston+1909).+(d)+Tamil+Pariah+(female)+and+Chinese+(male)+(Thuston,+1909).+(e)+Andamanese+(female)+and+UP+Brahmin+(male+)+(Portman+1899).+(f)+Andamanese+(female)+and+Hindu+(male)+(Man,+1883).&dq=(c)+Tamil+(female)+and+African+(male)+(Thurston+1909).+(d)+Tamil+Pariah+(female)+and+Chinese+(male)+(Thuston,+1909).+(e)+Andamanese+(female)+and+UP+Brahmin+(male+)+(Portman+1899).+(f)+Andamanese+(female)+and+Hindu+(male)+(Man,+1883).&hl=en&sa=X&ei=po9WT4m4GerL0QHSssypCg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA. Retrieved March 2 2012. "(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883)." 
  48. ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 272. http://books.google.com/books?id=2ec4AAAAIAAJ&q=(c)+Tamil+(female)+and+African+(male)+(Thurston+1909).+(d)+Tamil+Pariah+(female)+and+Chinese+(male)+(Thuston,+1909).+(e)+Andamanese+(female)+and+UP+Brahmin+(male+)+(Portman+1899).+(f)+Andamanese+(female)+and+Hindu+(male)+(Man,+1883).&dq=(c)+Tamil+(female)+and+African+(male)+(Thurston+1909).+(d)+Tamil+Pariah+(female)+and+Chinese+(male)+(Thuston,+1909).+(e)+Andamanese+(female)+and+UP+Brahmin+(male+)+(Portman+1899).+(f)+Andamanese+(female)+and+Hindu+(male)+(Man,+1883).&hl=en&sa=X&ei=po9WT4m4GerL0QHSssypCg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ. Retrieved March 2 2012. "(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883)." 
  49. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. 1987. p. 100. ISBN 8120602889. http://books.google.com/books?ei=-IBWT7mxCMbl0QG33OnHCg&id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ&dq=ON+A+CHINESE-TAMIL+Halting+in+the+course+of+a+recent+anthropological+expedition+on-+the+western+side&q=union+chinaman+tamil+paraiyan. Retrieved March 2 2012. "the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80-1 ; 80-1 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78•5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76-8)." 
  50. ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. http://books.google.com/books?ei=wpFWT-jhCeHc0QHg5e2CCg&id=UkwLAAAAIAAJ&dq=In+Gudalur%2C+enquiries+were+made+regarding+the+present+position+of+the+Tamil-Chinese+cross+described+by+Thurston+%281909%29.+It+may+be+recalled+here+that+Thurston+reported+the+above+cross+resulting+from+the+union+of+some+Chinese+convicts%2C+deported+from+the+Straits+Settlement%2C+and+local+Tamil+Paraiyan&q=enquiries+union+deported+local. Retrieved March 2 2012. "d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* ( Received on 21 September 1959 ) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan" 
  51. ^ Contested Past:Anti-brahmanical and Hindu nationalist reconstructions of early Indian history. In: Historiographia Linguistica, Volume 31:1 (2004) p 67.
  52. ^ Contested Past:Anti-brahmanical and Hindu nationalist reconstructions of early Indian history. In: Historiographia Linguistica, Volume 31:1 (2004) p 69.
  53. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. VI. Edgar Thurston and Rangachari, K. 1909. (Page.78.)
  54. ^ vck
  55. ^ Namadhu Thamizhmann :: Monthly Magazine for VCK

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Berkeley: University of California Press.

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