Philosophical anthropology

This article is about philosophical anthropology. For other uses, see Anthropology (disambiguation).

Philosophical anthropology is a discipline dealing with questions of metaphysics and phenomenology of the human person, and interpersonal relationships. It is the attempt to unify disparate ways of understanding behaviour of humans as both creatures of their social environments and creators of their own values. Although the majority of philosophers throughout the history of philosophy can be said to have a distinctive "anthropology" that undergirds their thought, philosophical anthropology itself, as a specific discipline in philosophy, arose within the later modern period as an outgrowth from developing methods in philosophy, such as phenomenology and existentialism. The former, which draws its energy from methodical reflection on human experience (first person perspective) as from the philosopher's own personal experience, naturally aided the emergence of philosophical explorations of human nature and the human condition.

A large focus of this examination is a look at interpersonal relationships as well as the ontology that is in play during these relationships -- of which intersubjectivity is a major theme. Intersubjectivity is the study of how two individuals, subjects, whose experiences and interpretations of the world are radically different understand and relate to each other. Recently anthropology has begun to shift towards studies of intersubjectivity and other existential/phenomenological themes. Studies of language have also gained new prominence in philosophy and sociology due to language's close ties with the question of intersubjectivity.

Practitioners of Note

Important philosophical anthropologists are Søren Kierkegaard, Josef Pieper, Rene Girard, Alasdair MacIntyre, John Dewey, E.R. Dodds, Ernst Cassirer, Helmuth Plessner, Arnold Gehlen, Paul Häberlin, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Pierre Bourdieu, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Jacques Derrida, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Paul Ricoeur, Martin Buber, Eric Voegelin, Hans Jonas, Hans-Eduard Hengstenberg, Rudolf Steiner, and Karol Wojtyla.

Modern period

Philosophical anthropology, as a specific discipline in philosophy, arose within the later modern period as an outgrowth from developing methods in philosophy, such as phenomenology and existentialism. The former, which draws its energy from methodical reflection on human experience (first person perspective) as from the philosopher's own personal experience, naturally aided the emergence of philosophical explorations of human nature and the human condition.

Anthropological Phenomenology of Max Scheler

Max Scheler, a German phenomenologist, is known for his highly developed philosophical anthropology which defines the human being not so much as a "rational animal" (as has traditionally been the case since Aristotle) but essentially as a loving being. He breaks down the traditional hylomorphic conception of the human person, and describes the personal being with a tripartite structure of lived body, soul, and spirit. Love and hatred are not psychological emotions, but spiritual, intentional acts of the person, which he categorises as "intentional feelings."

Anthropology of interpersonal relationships

A large focus of philosophical anthropology is also at interpersonal relationships, as an attempt to unify disparate ways of understanding behaviour of humans as both creatures of their social environments and creators of their own values. It analyses also the ontology that is in play in human relationships — of which intersubjectivity is a major theme. Intersubjectivity is the study of how two individuals, subjects, whose experiences and interpretations of the world are radically different understand and relate to each other. Recently anthropology has begun to shift towards studies of intersubjectivity and other existential/phenomenological themes. Studies of language have also gained new prominence in philosophy and sociology due to language's close ties with the question of intersubjectivity.

Michael Jackson's study of intersubjectivity

The academic Michael Jackson is another important philosophical anthropologist. His research and fieldwork concentrate on existential themes of "being in the world" (Dasein) as well as interpersonal relationships. His methodology challenges traditional anthropology due to its focus on first-person experience. In his most well known book, Minima Ethnographica which focuses on intersubjectivity and interpersonal relationships, he draws upon his ethnographic fieldwork in order to explore existential theory. In his latest book, Existential Anthropology, he explores the notion of control, stating that humans anthropomorphize inanimate objects around them in order to enter into an interpersonal relationship with them. In this way humans are able to feel as if they have control over situations that they cannot control because rather than treating the object as an object, they treat it as if it is a rational being capable of understanding their feelings and language. Good examples are prayer to gods to alleviate drought or to help a sick person or cursing at a computer that has ceased to function.

See also

• Antihumanism (opposite)
• Anthropology
• Existentialism
• Phenomenology
• Hermeneutics

Bibliography

• Donceel, Joseph F., Philosophical Anthropology, New York: Sheed&Ward 1967.
• Lucas Lucas, Ramon, Man Incarnate Spirit, a Philosophy of Man Compendium, USA: Circle Press, 2005.
• Mondin, Battista, Philosophical Anthropology, Man: an Impossible Project?, Rome: Urbaniana University Press, 1991.

Further reading

• Joseph Agassi, Towards a Rational Philosophical Anthropology. The Hague, 1977.
• Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy, Chicago: The Great Books foundation 1959.
• Martin Buber, I and Thou, New York: Scribners 1970.
• Martin Buber, The Knowledge of Man: A Philosophy of the Interhuman, New York: Harper&Row 1965.
• Martin Buber, Between Man and Man, New York: Macmillan 1965.
• Albert Camus, The Rebel: An Essay on Man in Revolt, New York: Vintage Books 1956.
• Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Chicago – London: Encyclopædia Britannica 1952.
• Teilhard de Chardin, The Phenomenon of Man, New York: Harper&Row 1965
• Jaques Derrida, l'Ecriture et la Difference
• Joachim Fischer, Philosophische Anthropologie. Eine Denkrichtung des 20. Jahrhunderts. Freiburg, 2008.
• Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, New York: Basic Books 1975.
• Erich Fromm, To Have or To Be, New York: Harper&Row 1976.
• David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature
• Hans Jonas, The Phenomenon of Life. Chicago, 1966.
• Søren Kierkegaard, The Sickness unto Death. 1848.
• Hans Köchler, Der innere Bezug von Anthropologie und Ontologie. Das Problem der Anthropologie im Denken Martin Heideggers. Hain: Meisenheim a.G., 1974.
• Hans Köchler, "The Relation between Man and World. A Transcendental-anthropological Problem," in: Analecta Husserliana, Vol. 14 (1983), pp. 181–186.
• Stanislaw Kowalczyk, An Outline of the Philosophical Anthropology. Frankfurt a.M. etc., 1991.
• Michael Jackson (anthropology), Minima Ethnographica and Existential Anthropology
• Michael Landmann, Philosophische Anthropologie. Menschliche Selbstdeutung in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Berlin, 3rd ed., 1969.
• Claude Lévi-Strauss, Anthropologie structurale. Paris, 1958.
• John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, New York: Dover Publication 1959 (vol. I-II).
• Bernard Lonergan, Insight: A Study on Human Understanding, New York-London: Philosophical Library-Longmans 1958.
• Alasdair MacIntyre, Dependent Rational Animals. 1999.
• Gabriel Marcel, Homo Viator: Introduction to a Metaphysics of Hope, London: Harper&Row, 1962.
• Gabriel Marcel, Problematic Man, New York: Herder and Herder 1967.
• Maurice Merleau-Ponty, La Phenomenologie de la Perception
• Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man, Boston: Beacon Press 1966.
• Jacques Maritain, Existence and Existent: An Essay on Christian Existentialism, Garden City: Image Books 1957.
• Maurice Nédoncelle, Love and the Person, New York: Sheed & Ward 1966.
• Josef Pieper, Happiness and Contemplation. New York:Pantheon, 1958.
• Josef Pieper, "Josef Pieper: An Anthology. San Francisco:Ignatius Press, 1989.
• Josef Pieper, Death and Immortality. New York:Herder & Herder, 1969.
• Josef Pieper, "Faith, Hope, Love". Ignatius Press; New edition edition, 1997.
• Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance. Notre Dame, Ind., 1966.
• Karl Rahner, Spirit in the World, New York: Herder and Herder, 1968.
• Karl Rahner, Hearer of the Word
• Karl Rahner, Hominisation: The Evolutionary Origin of Man as a Theological Problem, New York: Herder and Herder 1965.
• Paul Ricoeur, Soi-meme comme un autre
• Paul Ricoeur, Fallible Man: Philosophy of Will, Chicago: Henry Regnery Company 1967.
• Paul Ricoeur, Freedom and Nature: The Voluntary and Involuntary, Evanston: Northwestern University Press 1966.
• Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay in Phenomenological Ontology, New York: The Citadel Press 1956.
• Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, New York: Haskell House Publisher 1948.
• Jean-Paul Sartre, Nausea, New York: New Directions 1959.
• Martti Olavi Siirala, Medicine in Metamorphosis Routledge 2003.
• Baruch Spinoza, Ethics, Indianapolis: Hackett 1998.
• Eric Voegelin, Anamnesis.
• Karol Wojtyla, The Acting Person, Dordrecht-Boston: Reidel Publishing Company 1979.
• Karol Wojtyla, Love and Responsibility, London-Glasgow: Collins, 1981.