Plasmodium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 |
This article may require copy-editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone or spelling. You can assist by editing it now. (April 2008) |
- A plasmodium is also the macroscopic form of the protist known as a slime mold.
Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic protozoa. Infection with these parasites is known to cause malaria. The genus Plasmodium was discovered in 1885 by Marchiafava and Celli. Currently over 200 species of this genus are recognized and new species continue to be described.[2][3]
Of over the 200 known species of Plasmodium, at least 10 species infect humans. Other species infect animals, including monkeys, rodents, birds, and reptiles. The parasite always has two hosts in its life cycle: a mosquito vector and a vertebrate host.
As of 2006[update], the genus is in need of reorganization as it has been shown that parasites belonging to the genera Haemoproteus and Hepatocystis appear to be closely related to Plasmodium. It is likely that other species such as Haemoproteus meleagridis will be included in this genus once it is revised.
Contents
|
[edit] History
The organism itself was first seen by Laveran on November 6 1880 at a military hospital in Constantine, Algeria, when he discovered a microgametocyte exflagellating. In 1885 similar organisms were discovered within the blood of birds in Russia. There was brief speculation that birds might be involved in the transmission of malaria. Patrick Manson (in 1894) hypothesised that mosquitoes could transmit malaria. This hypothesis was experimentally confirmed independently by the Italian professor Giovanni Battista Grassi and the British physician Ronald Ross, both in 1898. Ross demonstrated the existence of Plasmodium in the wall of the midgut and salivary glands of a Culex mosquito using bird species as the vertebrate host. For this discovery he won the Nobel Prize in 1902. Grassi showed that human malaria could only be transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes. It is worth noting, however, that for some species the vector may not be a mosquito.
Grassi also proposed in 1900 the existence of an exoerythrocytic stage in the life cycle: this was later confirmed by Short, Garnham, Covell and Shute (in 1948) who found Plasmodium vivax in the human liver.
[edit] Life cycle
Mosquitoes of the genera Culex, Anopheles, Culiceta, Mansonia and Aedes may act as vectors. The currently known vectors (more than 100 species) for human malaria all belong to the genus Anopheles. Bird malaria is commonly carried by species belonging to the genus Culex. Only female mosquitoes bite. Aside from blood both sexes live on nectar, but one or more blood meals are needed by the female for oogenesis (egg production) as the protein content of nectar is very low. The life cycle of Plasmodium was discovered by Ross who worked with species from the genus Culex.
The life cycle of Plasmodium is complex. Sporozoites from the saliva of a biting female mosquito are transmitted to either the blood or the lymphatic system of the recipient.[4] The sporozoites then migrate to the liver and invade hepatocytes. The parasite matures in the hepatocyte to a schizont containing many merozoites in it. In some Plasmodium species, the parasite in the hepatocyte would not achieve maturation to a schizont but remain as a latent or dormant form and called a hypnozoite.[5].
The development from the hepatic stages to the erythrocytic stages has until very recently been obscure. In 2006 it was shown that the parasite buds off the hepatocytes in merosomes containing hundreds or thousands of merozoites.[6] These merosomes have been subsequently shown to lodge in the pulmonary capilaries and to slowly disintegrate there over 48–72 hours releasing merozoites.[7] Erythrocyte invasion is enhanced when blood flow is slow and the cells are tightly packed: both of these conditions are found in the alveolar capilaries.
Within the erythrocytes the merozoite grow first to a ring-shaped form and then to a larger trophozoite form. In the schizont stage, the parasite divides several times to produce new merozoites, which leave the red blood cells and travel within the bloodstream to invade new red blood cells. The parasite feeds by ingesting haemoglobin and other materials from red blood cells and serum. The feeding process damages the erythrocytes. Details of this process have not been studied in species other than Plasmodium falciparum so generalisations may be premature at this time.
At the molecular level a set of enzymes known as plasmepsins which are aspartic acid proteases are used to degrade hemoglobin. The parasite digests 70-80% of the erythrocyte's haemoglobin[8] but utilises only ~15% in de novo protein synthesis.[9] Intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum utilizes only a fraction of the amino acids derived from the digestion of host cell cytosol for the biosynthesis of its proteins. The excess amino acids are exported from the infected erythrocyte by new transport pathways created by the parasite.[10] The reason proposed for this apparently excessive digestion of haemoglobin is the colloid-osmotic hypothesis[11] which suggests that the digestion of haemoglobin increases the osmotic pressure within the infected erythrocyte leading to its premature rupture and subsequent death of the parasite. To avoid this fate much of the haemoglobin is digested and exported from the erythrocyte. This hypothesis has been experimentally confirmed.[12]
Most merozoites continue this replicative cycle, but some merozoites differentiate into male or female sexual forms (gametocytes) (also in the blood), which are taken up by the female mosquito.
In the mosquito's midgut, the gametocytes develop into gametes and fertilize each other, forming motile zygotes called ookinetes. The ookinetes penetrate and escape the midgut, then embed themselves onto the exterior of the gut membrane. Here they divide many times to produce large numbers of tiny elongated sporozoites. These sporozoites migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito where they are injected into the blood and subcutaneous tissue of the next host the mosquito bites. The majority appear to be injected into the subcutaneous tissue from which they migrate into the capillaries. A proportion are ingested by macrophages and still others are taken up by the lymphatic system where they are presumably destroyed. The sporozoites which successfully enter the blood stream move to the liver where they begin the cycle again.
The pattern of alternation of sexual and asexual reproduction which may seem confusing at first is a very common pattern in parasitic species. The evolutionary advantages of this type of life cycle were recognised by Mendel.
Under favourable conditions asexual reproduction is superior to sexual as the parent is well adapted to its environment and its descendents share these genes. Transferring to a new host or in times of stress, sexual reproduction is generally superior as this produces a shuffling of genes which on average at a population level will produce individuals better adapted to the new environment.
Reactivation of the hypnozoites has been reported for up to 30 years after the initial infection in humans. The factors precipating this reactivation are not known. In the species Plasmodium malariae,[citation needed] Plasmodium ovale[13] and Plasmodium vivax[14] hypnozoites have been shown to occur. Reactivation was not thought to occur in infections with Plasmodium falciparum but there has been two reports to date suggesting that this may occur (see below). It is not known if hypnozoite reactivaction may occur with any of the remaining species that infect humans but this is presumed to be the case.
[edit] Possible relapses of Plasmodium falciparum malaria
A report of clinical P. falciparum malaria that developed 4 years after exposure to the parasite in a patient with sickle cell anaemia has been published.[15] A second report of P. falciparum malaria which became symptomatic eight years after leaving an endemic area has also been published.[16] These cases indicated rather long incubation periods of falciparum malaria rarely occurred.
A third case of an apparent recurrence of P. falciparum malaria 9 years after leaving an endemic area has now been reported.[17] A fourth case of recurrence in a patient with lung cancer has been reported.[18]
It is beginning to appear that at least occasionally P. falciparum has a dormant stage. If this is in fact the case eradication or even control of this organism may be more difficult than has previously believed.
[edit] Potentially dormant forms of Plasmodium
A small number of potentially dormant forms of Plasmodium parasites both in vitro and in vivo have been observed.
The schizont stage-infected erythrocyte in an experimental culture of P. falciparum, F32 were suppressed to a low level with the use of atovaquone.[19] The parasites resumed growth several days after the drug was removed from the culture.
More than a hundred of late stage trophozoite or early schizont infected erythrocytes of P. falciparum in a case of placental malaria of a Tanzanian woman were found to form a nidus in an intervillous space of placenta. [20] While such a concentration of parasites in placental malaria is rare, placental malaria cannot give rise to persistent infection as pregnancy in humans normally lasts only 9 months.
Macrophages containing merozoites dispersed in their cytoplasm and called 'merophores' were observed in P. vinckei petteri - an organism that causes murine malaria.[21] Similar merophores were found in the polymorph leucocytes and macrophages of other murine malaria parasite, P. yoelii nigeriensis[22] and P. chabaudi chabaudi. All these species unlike P. falciparum are known to produce hyponozoites that may cause a relapse. The finding of Landau et al.[21] on the presence of malaria parasites inside lymphatics suggest a mechanism for the recrudescence and chronicity of malaria infection.[23]
[edit] Evolution
The life cycle is probably best understood in terms of its evolution. At the present time (2007) DNA sequences are available from fewer than sixty species of Plasmodium and most of these are from species infecting either rodent or primate hosts. The evolutionary outline given here should be regarded as speculative and subject to revision as data becomes available.
The Apicomplexa — the phylum to which Plasmodium belongs - are thought to have originated within the Dinoflagellates — a large group of photosynthetic protozoa. It is thought that the ancestors of the Apicomplexa were originally prey organisms that evolved the ability to invade the intestinal cells and subsequently lost their photosynthetic ability. Many of the species within the Apicomplexia still possess a plastid (the organelle in which photosynthesis occurs in eukaryotes): some that do not have evidence of plastid genes within their genome. These plastids - unlike those found in algae - are not photosynthetic. Its function is not known but there is some suggestive evidence that it may be involved in reproduction.
Some extant dinoflagelates, however, can invade the bodies of jellyfish and continue to photosynthesize, which is possible because jellyfish bodies are almost transparent. In other organisms with opaque bodies this ability would most likely rapidly be lost. The recent (2008) description of a photosynthetic protist related to the Apicomplexia with a functional plastid supports this hypothesis.[24]
Current (2007) theory suggests that the genera Plasmodium, Hepatocystis and Haemoproteus evolved from one or more Leukocytozoon species. Parasites of the genus Leukocytozoan infect white blood cells (leukocytes), liver and spleen cells and are transmitted by 'black flies' (Simulium species) — a large genus of flies related to the mosquitoes.
It is thought that Leukocytozoon evolved from a parasite that spread by the orofaecal route and which infected the intestinal wall. At some point this parasite evolved the ability to infect the liver. This pattern is seen in the genus Cryptosporidium to which Plasmodium is distantly related. At some later point this ancestor developed the ability to infect blood cells and to survive and infect mosquitoes. Once vector transmission was firmly established the previous orofecal route of transmission was lost.
Leukocytes, hepatocytes and most spleen cells actively phagocytose particulate matter making entry into the cell easier for the parasite. The mechanism of entry of Plasmodium species into erythrocytes is still very unclear taking as it does less than 30 seconds. It is not yet known if this mechanism evolved before mosquitoes became the main vectors for transmission of Plasmodium.
The genus Plasmodium evolved (presumably from its Leukocytozoon ancestor) about 130 million years ago, a period that is coincidental with the rapid spread of the angiosperms (flowering plants). This expansion in the angiosperms is thought to be due to at least one genomic duplication event. It seems probable that the increase in the number of flowers led to an increase in the number of mosquitoes and their contact with vertebrates.
Mosquitoes evolved in what is now South America about 230 million years ago. There are over 3500 species recognised but to date their evolution has not been well worked out so a number of gaps in our knowledge of the evolution of Plasmodium remain. There is evidence of a recent expansion of Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles arabiensis populations in the late Pleistocene in Nigeria.[25]
Presently it seems probable that birds were the first group infected by Plasmodium followed by the reptiles—probably the lizards. At some point primates and rodents became infected. The remaining species infected outside these groups seem likely to be due to relatively recent events.
[edit] Biology
All Plasmodium species examined to date have 14 chromosomes, one mitochondrion and one plastid. The chromosomes whose length is known vary from 500 kilobases to 3.5 megabases in length. It is presumed that this is the pattern throughout the genus. The typical chormosome number of Leukcytozoon has not yet been established.
The genome of four Plasmodium species have been sequenced. These species are Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium yoelli. All these species have 14 chromosomes and genomes of about 25 megabases results consistent with earlier estimates.
The biology of these organisms is more fully described on the Plasmodium falciparum biology page.
[edit] Taxonomy
Plasmodium belongs to the family Plasmodiidae (Levine, 1988), order Haemosporidia and phylum Apicomplexa. There are currently 450 recognised species in this order. Many species of this order are undergoing reexamination of their taxonomy with DNA analysis. It seems likely that many of these species will be re-assigned after these studies have been completed.[26][27] For this reason the entire order is outlined here.
Order Haemosporida
- Genus Bioccala
Family Haemoproteidae
- Genus Haemoproteus
- Subgenus Parahaemoproteus
- Subgenus Haemoproteus
Family Garniidae
- Genus Fallisia
- Subgenus Plasmodioides
Family Leucocytozoidae
- Genus Leukocytozoon
- Subgenus Leucocytozoon
- Subgenus Akiba
Family Plasmodiidae
- Genus Billbraya
- Genus Dionisia
- Genus Hepatocystis
- Genus Mesnilium
- Genus Nycteria
- Genus Plasmodium
- Subgenus Asiamoeba
- Subgenus Bennettinia
- Subgenus Carinamoeba
- Subgenus Garnia
- Subgenus Giovannolaia
- Subgenus Haemamoeba
- Subgenus Huffia
- Subgenus Lacertaemoba
- Subgenus Laverania
- Subgenus Novyella
- Subgenus Plasmodium
- Subgenus Paraplasmodium
- Subgenus Sauramoeba
- Subgenus Vinckeia
- Genus Polychromophilus
- Genus Rayella
- Genus Saurocytozoon
[edit] Diagnostic characteristics of the genus Plasmodium
- Merogony occurs both in erythrocytes and other tissues
- Merozoites, schizonts or gametocytes can be seen within erythrocytes and may displace the host nucleus
- Merozoites have a “signet-ring” appearance due to a large vacuole that forces the parasite’s nucleus to one pole
- Schizonts are round to oval inclusions that contain the deeply staining merozoites
- Forms gamonts in erythrocytes
- Gametocytes are 'halter-shaped' similar to Haemoproteus but the pigment granules are more confined
- Hemozoin is present
- Vectors are either mosquitos or sandflies
- Vertebrate hosts include mammals, birds and reptiles
Notes:
The genera Plasmodium, Fallisia and Saurocytozoon all cause malaria in lizards. All are carried by Diptera (flies). Pigment is absent in the Garnia. Non pigmented gametocytes are typically the only forms found in Saurocytozoon: pigmented forms may be found in the leukocytes occasionally. Fallisia produce non pigmented asexual and gametocyte forms in leukocytes and thrombocytes.
[edit] Phylogenetic trees
The relationship between a number of these species can be seen on the Tree of Life website. Perhaps the most useful inferences that can be drawn from this phylogenetic tree are:
- P. falciparum and P. reichenowi (subgenus Laverania) branched off early in the evolution of this genus
- The genus Hepatocystis is nested within (paraphytic with) the genus Plasmodium
- The primate (subgenus Plasmodium) and rodent species (subgenus Vinckeia) form distinct groups
- The rodent and primate groups are relatively closely related
- The lizard and bird species are intermingled
- Although Plasmodium elongatum (subgenus Haemamoeba) and Plasmodium elongatum (subgenus Huffia) appear be related here there are so few bird species (three) included, this tree may not accurately reflect their real relationship.
- While no snake parasites have been included these are likely to group with the lizard-bird division
While this tree contains a considerable number of species, DNA sequences from many species in this genus have not been included - probably because they are not available yet. Because of this problem, this tree and any conclusions that can be drawn from it should be regarded as provisional.
Three additional trees are available from the American Museum of Natural History.
These trees agree with the Tree of Life. Because of there greater number of species in these trees, some additional inferences can be made:
- The genus Hepatocystis appears to lie within the primate-rodent clade
- The genus Haemoproteus appears lie within the bird-lizard clade
- The trees are consistent with the proposed origin of Plasmodium from Leukocytozoon
It is also known that the species infecting humans do not form a single clade. [28] The species infecting Old World monkeys in contrast do seem to form a clade. Plasmodium vivax may have originated in Asia and the related species Plasmodium simium appears to be derived through a transfer from the human P. vivax to New World monkey species in South America.
Another tree concetrating on the species infecting the primates is available here: PLOS site
This tree shows that the 'African' (P. malaria and P. ovale) and 'Asian' (P.cynomogli, P. gonderi, P. semiovale and P. simium) species tend to cluster together. P. vivax clusters with the 'Asian' species. The rodent species (P. bergei, P. chabaudi and P. yoelli) form a sperate clade. As usual P. falciparum does not cluster with any other species. The bird species (P. juxtanucleare, P. gallinaceum and P. relictum) form a clade that is related to the included Leukocytozoan and Haemoproteus species.
It has been reported that the C terminal domain of the RNA polymerase 2 in the primate infecting species (other than P. falciparum and probably P. reichenowei) appears to be unusual[29] suggesting that the classification of species into the subgenus Plasmodium may have an evolutionary and biological basis.
A report of a new species - to date identified only from the sequence of its mitochondrion - from chimpanzees that clusters with P. falciparum and P. reichenowi has been published.[30] Further work will be needed to describe this new species. This species appears to have diverged from the P. falciparum- P. reichenowi clade about 21 million years ago.
A recently (2009) described species (Plasmodium hydrochaeri) that infects capybaras (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) may complicate the phylogentics of this genus.[31] This species appears to be most similar to Plasmodium mexicanum a lizard parasite. Further work in this area seems indicated.
[edit] Subgenera: discussion
The full taxonomic name of a species includes the subgenus but this is often omitted. The full name indicates some features of the morphology and type of host species.
The only two species in the sub genus Laverania are P. falciparum and P. reichenowi. The presence of elongated gametocytes in several of the avian subgenera and in Laverania in addition to a number of clinical features suggested that these might be closely related. This is no longer thought to be the case.
Species infecting monkeys and apes (the higher primates) with the exceptions of P. falciparum and P. reichenowi are classified in the subgenus Plasmodium. The distinction between P. falciparum and P. reichenowi and the other species infecting higher primates was based on the morphological findings but have since been confirmed by DNA analysis.
Parasites infecting other mammals including lower primates (lemurs and others) are classified in the subgenus Vinckeia. Vinckeia while previously considered to be something of a taxonomic 'rag bag' has been recently shown - perhaps rather surprisingly - to form a coherent grouping.
The remaining groupings are based on the morphology of the parasites. Revisions to this system are likely to occur in the future as more species are subject to analysis of their DNA.
The four subgenera Giovannolaia, Haemamoeba, Huffia and Novyella were created by Corradetti et al. for the known avian malarial species.[32] A fifth—Bennettinia—was created in 1997 by Valkiunas.[33] The relationships between the subgenera are the matter of current investigation. Martinsen et al. 's recent (2006) paper outlines what is currently (2007) known.[34] The subgenera Haemamoeba, Huffia, and Bennettinia appear to be monphylitic. Novyella appears to be well defined with occasional exceptions. The subgenus Giovannolaia needs revision.[35]
P. juxtanucleare is currently (2007) the only known member of the subgenus Bennettinia.
Unlike the mammalian and bird malarias those affecting reptiles have been more difficult to classify. In 1966 Garnham classified those with large schizonts as Sauramoeba, those with small schizonts as Carinamoeba and the single then known species infecting snakes (Plasmodium wenyoni) as Ophidiella.[36] He was aware of the arbitrariness of this system and that it might not prove to be biologically valid. Telford in 1988 used this scheme as the basis for the currently accepted (2007) system.[37]
[edit] Classification criteria for subgenera
[edit] Bird species
Species in the subgenus Bennettinia have the following characteristics:
Species in the subgenus Giovannolaia have the following characteristics:
- Schizonts contain plentiful cytoplasm, are larger than the host cell nucleus and frequently displace it. They are found only in mature erythrocytes.
- Gametocytes are elongated.
- Exoerythrocytic schizogony occurs in the mononuclear phagocyte system.
Species in the subgenus Haemamoeba have the following characteristics:
- Mature schizonts are larger than the host cell nucleus and commonly displace it.
- Gametocytes are large, round, oval or irregular in shape and are substantially larger than the host nucleus.
Species in the subgenus Huffia have the following characteristics:
- Mature schizonts, while varying in shape and size, contain plentiful cytoplasm and are commonly found in immature erthryocytes.
- Gametocytes are elongated.
Species in the subgenus Novyella have the following characteristics:
- Mature schisonts are either smaller than or only slightly larger than the host nucleus. They contain scanty cytoplasm.
- Gametocytes are elongated. Sexual stages in this subgenus resemble those of Haemoproteus.
- Exoerythrocytic schizogony occurs in the mononuclear phagocyte system
[edit] Reptile species
All species in these subgenera infect lizards.
Species in the subgenus Asiamoeba have the following characteristics:
Species in the subgenus Carinamoeba have the following characteristics:
- Schizonts normally give rise to less than 8 merozoites
Species in the subgenus Garnia have the following characteristics:
Species in the subgenus Lacertaemoba have the following characteristics:
Species in the subgenus Paraplasmodium have the following characteristics:
Species in the subgenus Sauramoeba have the following characteristics:
- Schizonts normally give rise to more than 8 merozoites
Notes
- The erythrocytes of both reptiles and birds retain their nucleus, unlike those of mammals. The reason for the loss of the nucleus in mammalian erythocytes remains unknown.
[edit] Species listed by subgenera
Plasmodium (Asiamoeba) clelandi
Plasmodium (Asiamoeba) draconis
Plasmodium (Asiamoeba) lionatum
Plasmodium (Asiamoeba) saurocordatum
Plasmodium (Asiamoeba) vastator
Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare
Plasmodium (Carinamoeba) basilisci
Plasmodium (Carinamoeba) clelandi
Plasmodium (Carinamoeba) lygosomae
Plasmodium (Carinamoeba) mabuiae
Plasmodium (Carinamoeba) minasense
Plasmodium (Carinamoeba) rhadinurum
Plasmodium (Carinamoeba) volans
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) anasum
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) circumflexum
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) dissanaikei
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) durae
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) fallax
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) formosanum
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) gabaldoni
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) garnhami
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) gundersi
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) hegneri
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) lophurae
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) pedioecetii
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) pinnotti
Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) polare
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) cathemerium
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) coggeshalli
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) coturnixi
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) elongatum
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) gallinaceum
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) giovannolai
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) lutzi
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) matutinum
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) paddae
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) parvulum
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) relictum
Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) tejera
Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum
Plasmodium (Huffia) hermani
Plasmodium (Lacertaemoba) floridense
Plasmodium (Lacertaemoba) tropiduri
Plasmodium (Laverania) falciparum
Plasmodium (Laverania) reichenowi
Plasmodium (Novyella) ashfordi
Plasmodium (Novyella) bertii
Plasmodium (Novyella) bambusicolai
Plasmodium (Novyella) columbae
Plasmodium (Novyella) corradettii
Plasmodium (Novyella) dissanaikei
Plasmodium (Novyella) globularis
Plasmodium (Novyella) hexamerium
Plasmodium (Novyella) jiangi
Plasmodium (Novyella) kempi
Plasmodium (Novyella) lucens
Plasmodium (Novyella) megaglobularis
Plasmodium (Novyella) multivacuolaris
Plasmodium (Novyella) nucleophilum
Plasmodium (Novyella) papernai
Plasmodium (Novyella) parahexamerium
Plasmodium (Novyella) paranucleophilum
Plasmodium (Novyella) rouxi
Plasmodium (Novyella) vaughani
Plasmodium (Paraplasmodium) chiricahuae
Plasmodium (Paraplasmodium) mexicanum
Plasmodium (Paraplasmodium) pifanoi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) bouillize
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) brasilianum
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) cercopitheci
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) coatneyi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) cynomolgi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) eylesi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) fieldi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) fragile
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) georgesi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) girardi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) gonderi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) inui
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) jefferyi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) joyeuxi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) knowlei
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) hyobati
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) malariae
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) ovale
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) petersi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) pitheci
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) rhodiani
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) schweitzi
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) semiovale
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) semnopitheci
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) silvaticum
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) simium
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) vivax
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) youngi
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) achiotense
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) adunyinkai
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) aeuminatum
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) agamae
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) balli
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) beltrani
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) brumpti
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) cnemidophori
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) diploglossi
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) giganteum
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) heischi
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) josephinae
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) pelaezi
Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) zonuriae
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) achromaticum
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) aegyptensis
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) anomaluri
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) atheruri
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) berghei
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) booliati
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) brodeni
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) bubalis
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) bucki
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) caprae
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) cephalophi
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) chabaudi
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) coulangesi
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) cyclopsi
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) foleyi
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) girardi
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) incertae
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) inopinatum
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) landauae
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) lemuris
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) melanipherum
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) narayani
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) odocoilei
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) percygarnhami
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) pulmophilium
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) sandoshami
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) traguli
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) tyrio
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) uilenbergi
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) vinckei
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) watteni
Plasmodium (Vinckeia) yoelli
Notes
Ophidiella was a subgenus created by Garnham in 1966 for the species infecting snakes. Presently (2007) it is no longer in use.
[edit] Host range
Host range among the mammalian orders is non uniform. At least 29 species infect non human primates; rodents outside the tropical parts of Africa are rarely affected; a few species are known to infect bats, porcupines and squirrels; carnivores, insectivores and marsupials are not known to act as hosts.
The listing of host species among the reptiles has rarely been attempted. Ayala in 1978 listed 156 published accounts on 54 valid species and subspecies between 1909 and 1975. [38] The regional breakdown was Africa: 30 reports on 9 species; Australia, Asia & Oceania: 12 reports on 6 species and 2 subspecies; Americas: 116 reports on 37 species.
Because of the number of species parasited by Plasmodium further discussion has been broken down into following pages:
[edit] Species reclassified into other genera
The literature is replete with species initially classified as Plasmodium that have been subsequently reclassified. With DNA taxonomy some of these may be once again be classified as Plasmodium. Some of these species are listed here for completeness.
The following species are currently (2007) regarded as belonging to the genus Hepatocystis rather than Plasmodium:
- Plasmodium epomophori
- Plasmodium kochi
- Plasmodium limnotragi Van Denberghe 1937
- Plasmodium pteropi Breinl 1911
- Plasmodium ratufae Donavan 1920
- Plasmodium vassali Laveran 1905
The following species are now considered to belong to the genus Haemoemba rather than to Plasmodium:
- Plasmodium praecox
- Plasmodium rousseleti
The following species been reclassified as a species of Garnia:
- Plasmodium gonatodi
Host note: Hepatocystis epomophori infects the bat (Hypsignathus monstruosus)
[edit] Species of dubious validity
The following species are currently regarded as questionable validity (nomen dubium). While most of these 'species' have been reported in the literature it has in general been difficult to independently confirm their existence. Some of these may be reclassified into different taxa while others seem likely to be declared to be non species i.e. that a mistake was made by the authors. However until a ruling on these species is made their status is likely to remain unclear.
- Plasmodium bitis
- Plasmodium bowiei
- Plasmodium brucei
- Plasmodium bufoni
- Plasmodium caprea
- Plasmodium carinii
- Plasmodium causi
- Plasmodium chalcidi
- Plasmodium danilweskyi
- Plasmodium divergens
- Plasmodium effusum
- Plasmodium fabesia
- Plasmodium gambeli
- Plasmodium herodiadis
- Plasmodium lagopi
- Plasmodium limnotragi
- Plasmodium malariae raupachi
- Plasmodium struthionis
[edit] References
- ^ "A New Malaria Agent in African Hominids" Ollomo B, Durand P, Prugnolle F, Douzery E, Arnathau C, et al. 2009 A New Malaria Agent in African Hominids. PLoS Pathog 5(5): e1000446. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000446
- ^ Chavatte J.M., Chiron F., Chabaud A., Landau I. (March 2007). "Probable speciations by "host-vector 'fidelity'": 14 species of Plasmodium from magpies" (in French). Parasite 14 (1): 21–37. PMID 17432055.
- ^ Perkins S.L., Austin C. (September 2008). "Four New Species of Plasmodium from New Guinea Lizards: Integrating Morphology and Molecules". J. Parasitol.: 1. doi:. PMID 18823150.
- ^ HHMI Staff (22 January 2006). "Malaria Parasites Develop in Lymph Nodes". HHMI News. Howard Hughes Medical Institute. http://www.hhmi.org/news/menard20060122.html.
- ^ Manson-Bahr PEC, Bell DR, eds. (1987). Manson's Tropical Diseases London: Bailliere Tindall, ISBN 0702011878
- ^ Sturm, A.; et al. (2006). "Manipulation of host hepatocytes by the malaria parasite for delivery into liver sinusoids". Science 313 (5791): 1287–1290. doi:.
- ^ Baer, Kerstin; et al. (2007). "Release of hepatic Plasmodium yoelii merozoites into the pulmonary microvasculature". PLoS Pathogens 3 (11): e171. doi:.
- ^ Francis, S. E.; Sullivan, D. J.; Goldberg, D. E. (1997). "Hemoglobin metabolism in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum". Ann. Review Micro. 51 (1): 97–123. doi:.
- ^ Krugliak, M.; Zhang, J.; Ginsburg, H. (2002). "Intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum utilizes only a fraction of the amino acids derived from the digestion of host cell cytosol for the biosynthesis of its proteins". Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 119 (2): 249–256. doi:.
- ^ Ginsburg, H.; Krugliak, M.; Eidelman, O.; Cabantchik, Z.I. (1983). "New permeability pathways induced in membranes of Plasmodium falciparum". Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 8 (2): 177–190. PMID 6348537.
- ^ Lew, V. L.; Tiffert, T.; Ginsburg, H. (2003). "Excess hemoglobin digestion and the osmotic stability of Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cells". Blood 101 (10): 4189–4194. doi:.
- ^ Esposito, A.; et al. (2008). "FRET imaging of hemoglobin concentration in Plasmodium falciparum-infected red cells". PLoS ONE 3 (11): e3780. doi:.
- ^ Cogswell FB (1992). "The hypnozoite and relapse in primate malaria." Clin Microbiol Rev 5(1): 26-35, PMID 1735093, Full text at PMC: 358221.
- ^ Krotoski WA, Collins WE, Bray RS, Garnham PC, Cogswell FB, Gwadz RW, Killick-Kendrick R, Wolf R, Sinden R, Koontz LC, Stanfill PS (1982). "Demonstration of hypnozoites in sporozoite-transmitted Plasmodium vivax infection." Am J Trop Med Hyg 31(6): 1291-1293, PMID 6816080.
- ^ Greenwood, T.; et al. (2008). "Febrile Plasmodium falciparum malaria 4 years after exposure in a man with sickle cell disease". Clin. Infect. Dis. 47 (4): e39–e41. doi:. PMID 18616395.
- ^ Szmitko, P. E.; Kohn, M. L.; Simor, A. E. (2008). "Plasmodium falciparum malaria occurring 8 years after leaving an endemic area". Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 61 (1): 105–107. doi:. PMID 18945569.
- ^ Theunissen, C. (2009). "Falciparum malaria in patient 9 years after leaving malaria-endemic area". Emerg Infect Dis. 15 (1): 115–116. doi:. PMID 17239927.
- ^ Foca E, Zulli R, Buelli F, De Vecchi M, Regazzoli A, Castelli F (2009). "P. falciparum malaria recrudescence in a cancer patient." Infez Med 17(1): 33-34, PMID 19359823.
- ^ Thapar M.M., Gil J.P., Bjorkman A. (2005). In vitro recrudescence of Plasmodium falciparum parasites suppressed to dormant state by atovaquone alone and in combination with proguanil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99(1): 62-70, PMID 15550263 doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2004.01.016.
- ^ Muehlenbachs A., Mutabingwa T.K., Fried M., Duffy P.E. (2007) An unusual presentation of placental malaria: A single persisting nidus of sequestered parasites. Hum. Pathol. 38(3): 520-523, PMID 17239927 doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2006.09.016
- ^ a b Landau I., Chabaud A.G., Mora-Silvera E., Coquelin F., Boulard Y., Renia L., Snounou G. (1999). Survival of rodent malaria merozoites in the lymphatic network: Potential role in chronicity of the infection. Parasite 6(4): 311-322, PMID 10633501
- ^ Landau I, Chabaud AG, Mora-Silvera E, Coquelin F, Boulard Y, Renia L, Snounou G (1999). "Survival of rodent malaria merozoites in the lymphatic network: Potential role in chronicity of the infection." Parasite 6(4): 311-322, PMID 10633501.
- ^ Gautret P. (2000) The Landau and Chabaud's phenomenon. Parasite 7(1): 57-58.
- ^ Moore RB, Oborník M, Janouskovec J, et al. (February 2008). "A photosynthetic alveolate closely related to apicomplexan parasites". Nature 451 (7181): 959–63. doi:. PMID 18288187.
- ^ Matthews SD, Meehan LJ, Onyabe DY, et al. (December 2007). "Evidence for late Pleistocene population expansion of the malarial mosquitoes, Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles gambiae in Nigeria". Med. Vet. Entomol. 21 (4): 358–69. doi:. PMID 18092974. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0269-283X&date=2007&volume=21&issue=4&spage=358.
- ^ Perkins SL, Schall JJ (October 2002). "A molecular phylogeny of malarial parasites recovered from cytochrome b gene sequences". J. Parasitol. 88 (5): 972–8. PMID 12435139.
- ^ Yotoko, K. S. C.; Elisei, C. (2006). "Malaria parasites (Apicomplexa, Haematozoea) and their relationships with their hosts: is there an evolutionary cost for the specialization?". J. Zoo. Syst. Evol. Res. 44 (4): 265. doi:.
- ^ Leclerc M.C., Hugot J.P., Durand P., Renaud F.(2004) Evolutionary relationships between 15 Plasmodium species from new and old world primates (including humans): an 18S rDNA cladistic analysis. Parasitology. 129(Pt 6):677-684
- ^ Kishore S.P, Perkins S.L, Templeton T.J., Deitsch K.W. (2009) An unusual recent expansion of the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II in primate malaria parasites features a motif otherwise found only in mammalian polymerases. J. Mol. Evol.
- ^ Ollomo B., Durand P., Prugnolle F., Douzery E., Arnathau C., Nkoghe D., Leroy E., Renaud F. (2009) A new malaria agent in African hominids. PLoS Pathog. 5(5):e1000446
- ^ Dos Santos L.C., Curotto S.M., de Moraes W., Cubas Z.S., Costa-Nascimento M.D., Filho I.R., Biondo A.W, Kirchgatter K. (2009) Detection of Plasmodium sp. in capybara. Vet. Parasitol.
- ^ Corradetti, A.; Garnham, P. C. C.; Laird, M. (1963). "New classification of the avian malaria parasites". Parassitologia 5: 1–4.
- ^ Valkiunas G. (1997). Bird Haemosporidia. Institute of Ecology, Vilnius
- ^ Martinsen E.S., Waite J.L., Schall J.J. (2006) Morphologically defined subgenera of Plasmodium from avian hosts: test of monophyly by phylogenetic analysis of two mitochondrial genes. Parasitology 1-8
- ^ Martinsen, E. S.; Waite, J. L.; Schall, J. J. (2007). "Morphologically defined subgenera of Plasmodium from avian hosts: test of monophyly by phylogenetic analysis of two mitochondrial genes". Parasitol. 134 (4): 483–490. doi:.
- ^ Garnham P.C.C. (1966) Malaria parasites and other haemospordia. Oxford, Blackwell
- ^ Telford, S. (1988). "A contribution to the systematics of the reptilian malaria parasites, family Plasmodiidae (Apicomplexa: Haemosporina)". Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Sciences 34: 65–96.
- ^ Ayala S.C. (1978) Checklist, host index, and annotated bibliography of Plasmodium from reptiles. J. Euk. Micro. 25(1): 87-100
[edit] Further reading
- Standard reference books for the identification of Plasmodium species
- Laird, Marshall (1998). Avian Malaria in the Asian Tropical Subregion. Santa Clara, CA: Springer-Verlag TELOS. ISBN 981-3083-19-0.
- Valkiūnas G. (2005). Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia.
- Garnham PCC (1966). Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. ISBN 0-632-01770-8.
-
- This book is the standard reference work on malarial species classification even if it a little dated now. A number of additional species have been described since its publication.
- Hewitt R (1942). Bird Malaria. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press.
- Other useful references
- Shorit HE (1951). "Life-cycle of the mammalian malaria parasite". Br. Med. Bull. 8 (1): 7–9. PMID 14944807. http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14944807.
- Baldacci P, Ménard R (October 2004). "The elusive malaria sporozoite in the mammalian host". Mol. Microbiol. 54 (2): 298–306. doi:. PMID 15469504. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0950-382X&date=2004&volume=54&issue=2&spage=298.
- Bledsoe GH (December 2005). "Malaria primer for clinicians in the United States". South. Med. J. 98 (12): 1197–204; quiz 1205, 1230. PMID 16440920. http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0038-4348&volume=98&issue=12&spage=1197.
[edit] External links
 |
Wikispecies has information related to: Plasmodium |
Some history of malaria - http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/bulletin_of_the_history_of_medicine/v079/79.2slater.html
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
