Powhatan language
| Powhatan | |
|---|---|
| Spoken in | Eastern Virginia Southern Maryland |
| Extinct | Late 18th century |
| Language family |
Algic
|
| Writing system | Latin |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | pim |
Powhatan or Virginia Algonquian is an extinct language belonging to the Eastern Algonquian subgroup of the Algonquian languages. It was spoken by the Powhatan people of tidewater Virginia. It became extinct around the 1790s after speakers switched to English.[1][2] The sole documentary evidence for this language is two short wordlists recorded around the time of first European contact. William Strachey recorded about 500 words and Captain John Smith recorded only about 50 words.[3][4] Smith also reported the existence of a pidgin form of Powhatan, but virtually nothing is known of it.[5] Strachey’s material was collected sometime between 1610 and 1611, and probably written up from his notes in 1612 and 1613, after he had returned to England. It was never published in his lifetime, although he made a second copy in 1618. The second copy was published in 1849, and the first in 1955.[4] Smith’s material was collected between 1607 and 1609 and published in 1612 and again in 1624. There is no indication of the location where he collected his material. In 1975, the Algonquianist Siebert published a book length study proclaiming the "reconstitution" of the phonology of the language.
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[edit] Dialect variation
Siebert's 1975 study also examined evidence for dialect variation. He found insufficient justification for assigning any apparent dialects to particular areas.[6][7] Strachey’s material reflects considerable lexical variation and minor phonological variation, suggesting the existence of dialect differentiation. A speculative connection to the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Virginia Algonquian tribes has been suggested, but there is no evidence to support this link.[4]
The table below gives a sample of words reflecting lexical variation. Each word is given as written by Smith or Strachey, followed by a proposed phonemic representation.[8]
| English | Dialect A Orthographic | Dialect A Transcription | Dialect B Orthographic | Dialect B Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| sun | <keshowghes>, <keshowse> | /ki·so·ss/ | <nepausche> | /nepass/ |
| roe | <woock> | /wa·hk/ | <vsecān> | /osi·ka·n/ |
| copper | <osawas> | /osa·wa·ss/ | <matassun>, <matassin> | /matassen/ |
| he is asleep | <nuppawv̄>, <nepauū> | /nepe·w/ | <kawwiu> | /kawi·w/ |
| (his) thigh | <apome> | /opo·m/ | <wÿkgwaus> | /wi·kkway/ |
| arrow | <attonce> | /ato·ns/ | <asgweowan> | /askwiwa·n/ |
| muskrat | <osasqaws> | /ossaskwe·ss/ | <mosskwacus> | /mossaskwe·ss/ |
| raccoon | <aroughcan> | /a·re·hkan/ | <esepannauk> (plural) | /e·sepan/ |
[edit] Loan words from Powhatan in English
Siebert credited Powhatan with being the source of more English loans than any other indigenous language.[2] Most such words were likely borrowed very early, probably before Powhatan-English conflict arose in 1622. Among these words are: chinquapin (Castanea pumila), chum (as in chumming), hickory, hominy, matchcoat, moccasin, muskrat, opposum, persimmon, pokeweed, pone (as in corn pone), raccoon, terrapin, tomahawk, and wicopy.[2]
[edit] Use of Powhatan words in a 21st century movie
For the film The New World, which retells the story of the English colonization of Virginia, Blair Rudes, a specialist in the American Indian languages of North Carolina and Virginia, took the Strachey and Smith wordlists and invented a language for the purposes of dialog in the film. The sentences put in the mouths of the actors as "Powhatan" were Rudes' personal synthesis of the scanty attested vocabulary of the Powhatan language with the grammar of other Algonquian languages. Several accounts in the news media used enthusiastic terms such as "restoration" or "revival" to describe this linguistic invention.[3]
[edit] See also
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[edit] Notes
- ^ Mithun 1999, p. 332.
- ^ a b c Siebert 1975, p. 290.
- ^ a b Lovgren 2006.
- ^ a b c Siebert 1975, p. 291.
- ^ Campbell 2000, p. 20.
- ^ Siebert 1975, pp. 295-296.
- ^ Feest 1978, p. 253.
- ^ Siebert 1975.
[edit] References
- Ethnologue entry for Powhatan
- Campbell, Lyle (2000). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514050-8.
- Feest, Christian. 1978. "Virginia Algonquin." Bruce Trigger, ed., Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 15. Northeast, pp. 253–271. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
- Lovgren, Stefan. 2006. "'New World' Film Revives Extinct Native American Tongue", National Geographic News", January 20, 2006
- Mithun, Marianne. 1999. The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge Language Family Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Siebert, Frank. 1975. "Resurrecting Virginia Algonquian from the dead: The reconstituted and historical phonology of Powhatan," Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages. Ed. James Crawford. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Pages 285-453.
[edit] External links
- How a linguist revived ‘New World’ language accessed 16 April 2006.
- Language Resources of Virginia Indians
- UNC Charlotte linguist restores lost language, culture for 'The New World' accessed 16 April 2006.
- Native Languages of the Americas: Powhatan
- Online version of both Strachey & Smith's word lists accessed 05 Nov 2006.
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