Proto-Indo-Iranian is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Indo-Iranian was a Satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, the Dardic languages and the Nuristani languages.
Descriptive phonology [edit]
PII vowel segments
| High |
*i *ī *u *ū |
| Low |
*a *ā |
In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core.
Two palatal series [edit]
Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to contain two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[1] The following table shows the most common reflexes and origins of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[2][3]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Proto-Iranian |
Avestan |
Old Persian |
Nuristani |
| *k̂ |
*ĉ |
ś ([ɕ]) |
*ts |
s |
θ |
ċ ([ts]) / š |
| *ĝ |
*ĵ |
j ([ɟ]) |
*dz |
z |
d |
j ([dz]) / z |
| *ĝʰ |
*ĵʰ |
h ([ɦ]) |
| *k/kʷ |
*č |
c |
*č |
č |
č |
č |
| *g/gʷ |
*ǰ |
j ([ɟ]) |
*ǰ |
ǰ |
ǰ |
ǰ / ž |
| *gʰ/gʷʰ |
*ǰʰ |
h ([ɦ]) |
Laryngeal [edit]
Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic position. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Avestan as unwritten glottal stops.[4]
Accent [edit]
Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[5]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent, indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.
Historical phonology [edit]
The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.
A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:
- The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *k̂ *ĝ *ĝʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ĉ, *ĵ, *ĵʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[6]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *k̂m̥tóm |
*ĉatám |
śatám |
satəm |
centum |
"hundred" |
| *ĝónu |
*ĵā́nu |
jā́nu |
zānu |
genu |
"knee" |
| *ĝʰéi-mn̥ |
*ĵʰimá- |
himá- |
zima- |
hiems |
"winter" / "snow" |
| *kʷó- |
*ká- |
ká- |
kō |
quis |
"who?, what?" |
| *gʷou- |
*gau- |
go |
gau- |
bos, bovis |
"cow" |
| *gʷʰormó- |
*gʰarmá- |
gharmá- |
garəma- |
formus |
"warmth, heat" |
- The PIE syllabic liquids *l̥, *r̥ merge as *r̥.[7]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *wĺ̥kʷo- |
*wŕ̥ka- |
*vŕ̥ka- |
vəhrka- |
lupus |
"wolf" |
- The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[7]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *k̂m̥tóm |
*ĉatám |
śatám |
satəm |
centum |
"hundred" |
| *mn̥tó- |
*matá |
matá- |
|
mens, mentis |
"thinking" |
- Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dzdʰ.[8]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *ubʰto- |
*ubdʰa- |
|
ubdaēna |
"woven" / "made of woven material" |
| *urdʰto- |
*urdzdʰa- |
vr̥ddʰá- |
vrzda- |
"complete/mature" |
| *augʰ-tá- |
*augdʰá- |
*óhate |
*augda |
"he said" |
- The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following *r *r̥ *u *k or *i. Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[7]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *wers- |
*warš- |
varṣman- |
|
"summit" |
| *pr̥sto- |
*pr̥šta- |
pr̥ṣṭhá- |
paršta |
"back" / "backbone" |
| *ǵeus- |
*ĵauš- |
joṣati |
zaošō |
"taste" |
| *kʷsep- |
*kšap- (< *ksep) |
kṣāp |
xšap |
"darkness" |
| *wis- |
*wiš- |
viṣa- |
viša- |
"poison" |
| *nisdo- |
*nižda- |
nīḍa- |
|
"nest" |
- Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[9]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *h₂ok̂tṓ |
*oĉtṓ |
*aštā́ |
aṣṭaú |
ašta |
"eight" |
| *h₃mr̥ĝt- |
*mr̥ĵd- |
*mr̥žd- |
mr̥ḍīká- |
mərəžḍīka |
"wiped away" / "pardon" |
| *uĝʰtó- |
*uĵʰtó- |
*uždʰá- |
ūḍhá- |
|
"carried" |
- The sequence *ĉs was simplified to *šš.[10]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *h₂ék̂s- |
*áĉs- |
*ášš- |
ákṣa- |
aši- |
axis |
"shoulder" / "axle" |
- The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[8]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *kʷe |
*ke |
*ča |
ca |
ča |
"and" |
| *gʷíh₃weti |
*gíh₃weti |
*ǰī́wati |
jī́vati |
jvaiti |
"lives" |
| *gʷʰénti |
*gʰénti |
*ǰʰánti |
hánti |
jainti |
"slays" |
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *deh₃tór-m |
*deh₃tṓr-m |
*dātā́ram |
dātā́ram |
dātāram |
dator |
"giver" (acc. sg.) |
- The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *kʷe |
*ča (< *če) |
ca |
ča |
"and" |
| *gʷʰormó- |
*gʰarmá- |
gharmá- |
garəma- |
"heat" |
| *bʰréh₂tēr |
*bʰrā́tār |
bhrā́tā |
brātā |
"brother" |
| *wōkʷs |
*wākš |
vāk |
vāxš |
"voice" |
- In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[12][13]
- Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *ph₂trei |
*pitrai |
pitre |
piθrai |
"father" (dative singular) |
-
- Following a consonant and word-final
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *-medʰh₂ |
*-madʰi |
-mahi |
-madi |
(1st person plural middle ending) |
- The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[14]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *ph₂tér |
*pHtā́ |
pitā́ |
ptā |
"father" (nominative singular) |
- According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[15]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *bʰeh₂g- |
*bʰag- ( < *bʰaHg- ) |
bʰag- |
baxša |
"distribute" |
Subsequent sound changes [edit]
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.
Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences[16]
| PIE |
OInd/VS |
Av |
PIE |
OInd/VS |
Av |
| *p |
> |
p |
p |
*ph̥atēr "father" |
pitā́ "father" |
pitar- "father" |
| *b |
> |
b |
b |
*bel- "strong" |
bálam "strength" |
- |
| *bh |
> |
bh |
b |
*bhréhatēr "brother" |
bhrā́tār- "brother" |
brātar- "brother |
| *t |
> |
t |
t |
*tuhxóm "thou" |
tuvám "thou" |
tvəm "thou" |
| *d |
> |
d |
d |
*doru "wood" |
dā́ru "wood" |
dāru- "wood" |
| *dh |
> |
dh |
d |
*dhohxneha- "grain" |
dhānā́- "grain" |
dāna- "grain" |
| *k̂ |
> |
ś |
s |
*dék̂m̥ "ten" |
dáśa "ten" |
dasa "ten" |
| *ĝ |
> |
j |
z |
*ĝónu "knee" |
jā́nu "knee" |
zānu- "knee" |
| *ĝh |
> |
h |
z |
*ĝhimós "cold" |
himá- "cold, frost" |
zəmaka- "winterstorm" |
| *k |
> |
k ~ c |
x ~ č |
*kruharós "bloody" |
krūrá- "bloody" |
xrūra- "bloody" |
|
|
|
|
*téket "may he run" |
- |
tačat̰ "may he run" |
| *g |
> |
g ~ j |
g ~ ǰ |
*haéuges- "strength" |
ójas- "strength" |
aoǰah "strength" |
|
|
|
|
*haugrós "strong" |
ugrá- "strong" |
ugra- "strong" |
| *gh |
> |
gh ~ h |
g ~ ǰ |
*dl̥hxghós "long" |
dīrghá- "long" |
darəga- "long" |
|
|
|
|
*dlehxghistos "longest" |
- |
draǰišta- "longest" |
| *kw |
> |
k ~ c |
k ~ č |
*kwós "who" |
káḥ "who" |
kō "who" |
|
|
|
|
*kwe "and" |
ca "and" |
́ča "and" |
| *gw |
> |
g ~ j |
g ~ ǰ |
*gwou- "cow" |
gav- "cow" |
gau- "cow" |
|
|
|
|
*gwih3uós "alive" |
jīvá- "alive" |
OPer: ǰīva
- "living"
|
| *gwh |
> |
gh ~ h |
g ~ ǰ |
*gwhnénti "strike" (pl.) |
ghnánti "strike" (pl.) |
- |
|
|
|
|
*gwhénti "strikes" |
hánti "strikes" |
ǰainti "strikes" |
| *s |
> |
s |
s ~ h |
*septm̥ "seven" |
saptá "seven" |
hapta "seven" |
|
|
|
|
*asti "is" |
asti "is" |
asti "is" |
| *i̥ |
> |
y |
y |
*i̥ugóm "yoke" |
yuga'm "yoke" |
yuga- "yoke" |
| *u̥ |
> |
v |
v |
*u̥éĝheti "drives, rides" |
váhati "drives" |
vazaiti "travels" |
| *m |
> |
m |
m |
*méhatēr "mother" |
mātár- "mother" |
mātar- "mother" |
| *n |
> |
n |
n |
*nos "us" |
nas "us" |
nō "us" |
| *l |
> |
l ~ r |
r |
*kweleti "moves" |
carati "moves" |
caraiti "moves" |
| *r |
> |
r |
r |
*bhrehatēr "brother" |
bhrā́tār- "brother" |
brātar- "brother |
| *n̥ |
> |
a |
a |
*n̥- "un-" |
a- "un-" |
a- "un-" |
| *m̥ |
> |
a |
a |
*k̂m̥tóm "hundred" |
s'atám "hundred" |
satəm "hundred" |
| *l̥ |
> |
r̥ |
ərər |
*u̥l̥kwos "wolf" |
vĺ̥ka- "wolf" |
vəhrka- "wolf" |
| *r̥ |
> |
r̥ |
ərər |
*k̂r̥d- "heart" |
hŕ̥d- "heart" |
zərəd- "heart" |
| *i |
> |
i |
i |
*linékwti "leaves" |
riṇákti "leaves" |
irinaxti "releases" |
| *e |
> |
a |
a |
*dék̂m̥ "ten" |
dáśa "ten" |
dasa "ten" |
| *ē |
> |
ā |
ā |
*hanḗr "man" |
nā "man" |
nā "man" |
| *a |
> |
a |
a |
*haéĝeti "drives" |
ájati "drives" |
azaiti "drives" |
| *ā |
> |
ā |
ā |
*méhatēr "mother" |
mātā́ "mother" |
mātar- "mother" |
| *o |
> |
a ~ ā |
a ~ ā |
*ĝómbhos "tooth, peg" |
jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk" |
- |
|
|
|
|
*ĝónu "knee" |
jānu "knee" |
zānu- "knee" |
| *ō |
> |
ā |
ā |
*dhohxneha- "grain" |
dhānā́- "grain" |
dāna- "grain" |
| *u |
> |
u |
u |
*iugóm "yoke" |
yugám "yoke" |
yuga- "yoke" |
| *ū |
> |
ū |
ū |
*mū́s "mouse" |
mū́ṣ- "mouse" |
NPer mūs "mouse" |
| *h1 |
> |
⊘ |
⊘ |
*h1ésti "is" |
ásti "is" |
asti "is" |
| *h2 |
> |
⊘ |
⊘ |
*h2r̥tk̂os "bear" |
r̥'kṣa- "bear" |
arəša- "bear" |
| *h3 |
> |
⊘ |
⊘ |
*h3ókws(i) "eye" |
ákṣi "eye" |
aši "eye" |
| *h4 |
> |
⊘ |
⊘ |
*h4órĝhis "testicle" |
- |
ərəzi- "testicle" |
| Proto-Indo-Iranian |
Old Iranian (OP, Av) |
Old Indic/Vedic Sanskrit |
| *aĉwa- ("horse") |
Av, OP aspa |
aśva |
| *bʰag- |
OP baj- (bāji; "tribute") |
bhag- (bhaga) |
| *bʰrātr- ("brother") |
OP brātar |
bhrātṛ |
| *bʰūmī ("earth", "land") |
OP būmi |
bhūmī |
| *martya ("mortal, "man") |
OP martya |
martya |
| *māsa ("moon") |
OP māha |
māsa |
| *wāsara ("early") |
OP vāhara ("spring") |
vāsara ("morning") |
| *ṛta ("truth") |
Av aša, OP arta |
ṛta |
| *draugʰ- ("falsehood") |
Av druj, OP draug- |
druh- |
| *sauma "pressed (juice)" |
Av haoma |
soma |
See also [edit]
- ^ Burrow, pp. 78-79
- ^ Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998.). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London ; New York: Routledge,. p. 134. ISBN 0-415-06449-X.
- ^ Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London ; New York: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
- ^ Beekes (1988), p. 50
- ^ Beekes, p. 55
- ^ Burrow, pp. 74-75
- ^ a b c Fortson, p. 182
- ^ a b Fortson, p. 181
- ^ Burrow, p. 91
- ^ Burrow, pp. 92-94
- ^ Fortson, p. 183
- ^ Beekes, pp, 85-86
- ^ Lubotsky, p. 53
- ^ get ref
- ^ Beekes, pp. 88-89
- ^ "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.
Bibliography [edit]
- Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08332-4.
- Burrow, T. (2001). The Sanskrit Language (1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (illustrated ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7.
- Lubotsky, A. M. (1988). The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08835-0.
- Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
- Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).
