Pushmataha

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Pushmataha
Pushmataha high resolution.jpg
Pushmataha, 1824, Smithsonian American Art Museum
Tribe Choctaw
1815 – 1824
Born c. 1764
Macon, Mississippi
Died December 24, 1824
Washington, D.C.
Successor Oklahoma (nephew)
Native name Apushamatahahubi
Nickname(s) Indian General
Cause of death Croup
Resting place Congressional Cemetery, Washington D.C.
Religious beliefs American Indian animism
Spouse(s) 2
Children 5

Pushmataha (c.1760's - 24 December 1824; also spelled Pooshawattaha, Pooshamallaha, or Poosha Matthaw), the "Indian General", was a chief of the Native American tribe of the Choctaws, regarded by many historians as the "greatest of all Choctaw chiefs"[1]. Pushmataha was highly regarded among Native Americans, Europeans and white Americans for his skill and cunning in both war and diplomacy. Rejecting the offers of alliance and reconquest proffered by Tecumseh, Pushmataha led the Choctaws to fight on the side of the United States in the War of 1812. He negotiated several treaties with the United States. In 1824, he traveled to Washington to petition the Federal Government against further cessions of Choctaw land; he there met with John C. Calhoun and Marquis de Lafayette, and his portrait was painted by Charles Bird King. He died shortly thereafter and was buried with full military honors in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C..

Contents

[edit] Name

The exact meaning of Pushmataha's name is unknown, though all agree that it contains the connotations of "ending". Many possible etymologies have been suggested:

  • Apushamatahahubi: "a messenger of death; literally one whose rifle, tomahawk, or bow is alike fatal in war or hunting." [1]
  • Apushim-alhtaha, "the sapling is ready, or finished, for him." [2]
  • Pushmataha, "the warrior's seat is finished." [3]
  • Pushmataha, "He has won all the honors of his race." [4]
  • Apushimataha, "No more in the bag." [5]

In addition, some sources report that he was given the early warrior-name of "Eagle".

[edit] Early life

Pushmataha's early life is poorly documented. His parents are unknown, possibly killed in a raid by a neighboring tribe. Pushmataha never spoke of his ancestors; as a result, a colorful legend of his origin was told:

"A little cloud was once seen in the northern sky. It came before a rushing wind, and covered the Choctaw country with darkness. Out of it few an angry fire. It struck a large oak, and scattered its limbs and its trunk all along the ground, and from that spot sprung forth a warrior fully armed for war."

[3] However, most historians agree that he was born in 1764 in the normal manner near the future site of Macon, Mississippi.[5]

When he was 13, Pushmataha fought in a war against the Creek people.[6] Better attested is his participation in wars with the Osage and Caddo tribes between 1784 and 1789,[1][7] He served as a warrior in other conflicts into the first decade of the 1800s, by when his reputation as a warrior was cemented. These conflicts were due to depletion of the traditional deer-hunting grounds of the Choctaw around their holy site of Nanih Waiya. Population had increased in the area and competition over the fur trade with Europeans exacerbated violent conflict. The Choctaw raided lands of other tribes for deer.[8] Pushmataha's raids extended into the territories that would become the states of Arkansas and Oklahoma. His firsthand experience would prove invaluable for later negotiations with the US government for those same lands.

[edit] Chief for the Six Towns district

Around 1800, Pushmataha's renown as a military and spiritual leader allowed him to become a mingo (chief) of the Choctaws, first for the Oklahannali or Six Towns district (one of three in the Choctaw tribe). His sharp logic, humorous wit, and lyrical, eloquent speaking style quickly earned him renown in councils. Pushmataha rapidly took a central position in diplomacy, first meeting with United States envoys at Fort Confederation in 1802.[8] Pushmataha negotiated the Treaty of Mount Dexter with the United States on 16 November 1805,[4][9] and met Thomas Jefferson during his term as President.

[edit] War of 1812

Early in 1811, Tecumseh garnered support for his British-backed attempt to recover lands from the United States settlers. As chief for the Six Towns district, Pushmataha strongly resisted such a plan, pointing out that the Choctaw and their neighbors the Chickasaw had always lived in peace with European Americans, had learned valuable skills and technologies, and had received honest treatment and fair trade.[7] The joint Choctaw-Chickasaw council voted against alliance with Tecumseh. When Tecumseh departed, Pushmataha accused him of tyranny over his own Shawnee tribe and other tribes. He warned Tecumseh that he would fight against those who fought the United States.[10]

With the outbreak of war, Pushmataha led the Choctaw in alliance with the United States. He argued against the Creek alliance with Britain after the massacre at Fort Mims[8]. In mid-1813, Pushmataha went to St. Stephens, Alabama with an offer of alliance and recruitment of warriors. He was escorted to Mobile to speak with General Flournoy, then commanding the district. Flournoy initially declined Pushmataha's offer and offended the chief. Flournoy's staff quickly convinced him to reverse his decision. A courier's carrying a message accepting Pushmataha's offer caught up with the chief at St. Stephens.[11]

Returning to Choctaw territory, Pushmataha raised a company of 500 Choctaw warriors. He was commissioned (as either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Brigadier General) in the United States Army at St. Stephens. After observing that the officers and their wives would promenade along the Alabama River, Pushmataha summoned his wife to St. Stephens and took part in this custom. He helped to elevate women's status in his tribe.[citation needed]

Under General Claiborne, whom they joined in mid-November, Pushmataha and 150 Choctaw warriors took part in an attack on Creek forces at the Battle of Holy Ground, also known as Kantachi or Econochaca, on 23 December 1813.[4][11] With this victory, Choctaw began to volunteer in greater numbers from the other two districts of the tribe. By February 1814, a larger band of Choctaws under Pushmataha had joined General Andrew Jackson's force for the sweeping of the Creek territories near Pensacola. Many of the Choctaw departed after the final defeat of the Creek at Horseshoe Bend. By the Battle of New Orleans, only a few Choctaw remained with the army. They were the only Native American tribe represented in the battle. Some sources say Pushmataha was among them, while others disagree.

Pushmataha was regarded as a strict war leader, marshaling his warriors with discipline. U.S. Army officers impressed with his leadership skills called him "The Indian General".

[edit] Head Chief of the Choctaw

On his return from the wars, Pushmataha was elected paramount chief of the Choctaw nation. A cultural conservative, Pushamataha resisted the approaches of Protestant missionaries who arrived in Choctaw territory in 1818.[8] However, he was in favor of learning new technologies and useful practices from the Americans, including cotton gins, agricultural practices, and military disciplines.[7] He devoted much of his military pension to the funding of a Choctaw school system [4], and endeavoured to have his five children educated as well as possible [3].

Pushmataha negotiated two more land cession-treaties with the United States. While the treaty of 24 October 1816 was counted of little loss, composed mainly of hunted-out grounds, the Treaty of Doak's Stand (signed 18 October 1820) was highly contentious. European-American settlement was encroaching on core lands of the Choctaw. Although the government offered equivalent-sized plots of land in the future states of Arkansas and Oklahoma, Pushmataha knew the lands were less fertile and that European-American squatters were already settling in the territory. "He displayed much diplomacy and showed a business capacity equal to that of Gen. Jackson, against whom he was pitted, in driving a sharp bargain."[4] Reportedly, in a tense exchange with Andrew Jackson, they exchanged frank views:

Gen. Jackson put on all his dignity and thus addressed the chief: "I wish you to understand that I am Andrew Jackson, and, by the Eternal, you shall sign that treaty as I have prepared it." The mighty Choctaw Chief was not disconcerted by this haughty address, and springing suddenly to his feet, and imitating the manner of his opponent, replied, "I know very well who you are, but I wish you to understand that I am Pushmataha, head chief of the Choctaws; and, by the Eternal, I will not sign that treaty."

Pushmataha signed only after securing guarantees from the general in the text of the treaty that squatters would be evicted from reserved lands.

[edit] Journey to Washington

In 1824, Pushmataha became further concerned at the encroaching settlement patterns and the unwillingness of local authorities to respect Indian land title. He resolved to take his case directly to the Federal government in Washington, D.C.. Leading a delegation of two other regional chiefs (Apuckshunubbee and Mosholatubbee), he sought either expulsion of white settlers from deeded lands in Arkansas, or compensation in land and cash for such lands.[8] The group also consisted of Talking Warrior, Red Fort, Nittahkachee, Col. Robert Cole and David Folsom, both half breed (mixed-race) Indians; Captain Daniel McCurtain; and Major John Pitchlynn, the U.S. Interpreter.[12]

The delegation planned to travel the Natchez Trace to Nashville, then to Lexington, Kentucky; onward to Maysville, Kentucky; across the Ohio River (called the Spaylaywitheepi by the Shawnee) northward to Chillicothe, Ohio (former principal town of the Shawnee); then finally east over the “National Highway” to Washington City. [12]

Pushmataha met with President James Monroe, and gave a speech to Secretary of War John C. Calhoun. He reminded Calhoun of the now-longstanding alliances between the United States and the Choctaw.[13] He said, "[I] can say and tell the truth that no Choctaw ever drew his bow against the United States ... My nation has given of their country until it is very small. We are in trouble." (Hewitt 1995:51-52)

While in Washington, Pushmataha sat in his Army uniform for a portrait by Charles Bird King; it hung in the Smithsonian Institution until 1865. While the original was destroyed by a fire in that year, numerous prints were made that have become the most famous likeness of Pushmataha. While in Washington, the chief also met with the Marquis de Lafayette, who was visiting Washington, D.C. for the last time. He hailed Lafayette as a fellow aged warrior who, though foreign, rose to high renown in the American cause.

[edit] Death and burial

In December 1824, Pushmataha acquired a viral respiratory infection, then known as the croup. He rapidly became ill, and was visited by Andrew Jackson. On his deathbed, Pushmataha reflected that the national capital was a good place to die. He requested full military honors for his funeral, and gave specific instructions as to his effects. His last recorded words were these:

"I am about to die, but you will return to our country. As you go along the paths, you will see the flowers, and hear the birds sing; but Pushmataha will see and hear them no more. When you reach home they will ask you, 'Where is Pushmataha?' And you will say to them, 'He is no more.' They will hear your words as they do the fall of the great oak in the stillness of the midnight woods." [3]

Grave of Pushmataha in Congressional Cemetery (Washington, DC, USA)

Pushmataha died on 24 December 1824. As requested, he was buried with full military honors as a Brigadier General of the U.S. Army, in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C.. He is the only Native American chief interred there. His epitaph reads: Pushmataha, a Choctaw chief, lies here. This monument to his memory is erected by his brother chiefs who were associated with him in a delegation from their nation in the year 1824 to the general government of the United States.

The National Intelligencer wrote on 28 December 1824 about the death:

At Tennison's Hotel, on Friday last, the 24th instant, Pooshamataha, a Chief of the Chocataw Nation of Indians, distinguished for his bold elocution and his attachment to the United States. At the commencement of the late war on our Southern border, he took an early and decided stand in favor of the weak and isolated settlements on Tombigby, and he continued to fight with and for them whilst they had an enemy in the field. His bones will rest a distance from his home, but in the bosom of the people he delighted to love. May a good hunting ground await his generous spirit in another and a better world. Military honors were paid to his remains by the Marine Corps of the United States, and by several uniformed companies of the militia.

On Pushmataha's death, Oklahoma (known as "Red People"), rose to become chief of the Oklahannali Choctaw. Reportedly Oklahoma was later removed from office because of drinking problems.[14] General Humming Bird succeeded Oklahoma. Nittakechi ("Day-prolonger" ) succeeded Humming Bird after he died in 1828.[14]

[edit] Pushmataha in other contexts

  • The Choctaw Nation in Oklahoma included a Pushmataha District, until Oklahoma's statehood, and the new state named Pushmataha County in honor of the chief.
  • The Boy Scouts of America named the council containing the area of Nanih Waiya, the "Pushmataha Area Council". The story of Pushmataha is related to all Scouts at the local summer camp.
  • In northwest Choctaw County, Alabama (located in west Alabama), the community of Pushmataha is named in his honor.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c Swanton, John (1931). "Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial Life of the Choctaw Indians". Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin (103). 
  2. ^ Handbook of American Indians, 1906
  3. ^ a b c d Pack, Ellen. "Pushmataha Great Choctaw Chief". http://www.natchezbelle.org/ahgp-ms/push.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-29. 
  4. ^ a b c d e "Pushmataha, Choctaw Indian Chief". Access Genealogy: Indian Tribal Records. http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/choctaw/pushmatah.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-29. 
  5. ^ a b Lincecum, Gideon (1906). "Life of Apushimataha". Mississippi Historical Society Publications 9: 415–485. 
  6. ^ O'Brien, Greg (1999). "Protecting Trade through War: Choctaw Elites and British Occupation of the Floridas". in Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern. Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples, 1600-1850. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 149–166. 
  7. ^ a b c Jones, Charlie. "Choctaw History - Pushmataha". http://www.tc.umn.edu/~mboucher/mikebouchweb/choctaw/push1.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-29. 
  8. ^ a b c d e O'Brien, Greg (2004). "Pushmataha: Choctaw Warrior, Diplomat, and Chief". Mississippi History NOW. Mississippi Historical Society. http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/features/feature18/pushmataha.html. Retrieved 2006-11-29. 
  9. ^ "Pushmataha". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 2006. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061979. Retrieved 2006-11-29. 
  10. ^ Junaluska, Arthur; Vine Deloria, Jr. (1976). "Chief Pushmataha - Response to Tecumseh" (mp3). Great American Indian Speeches, Vol. 1 (Phonographic Disc).. Caedmon. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/nativeamericans/chiefpushmataha.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-29. 
  11. ^ a b Lossing, Benson J.. "XXXIV: War Against the Creek Indians.". Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812. New York: Harper & Brothers. http://freepages.history.rootsweb.com/~wcarr1/Lossing2/Chap34.html. Retrieved 2006-11-30. 
  12. ^ a b White, Earl. "Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma". Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. http://www.choctawnation.com/History/index.cfm?fuseaction=HArticle&HArticleID=1. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  13. ^ William Jennings Bryan, ed. "Pushmataha to John C. Calhoun". The World’s Famous Orations: vol. VIII - America: I (1761-1837). http://www.bartleby.com/268/8/6.html. Retrieved 2006-11-29. 
  14. ^ a b Peter, Hudson (March 1939). "Chronicles of Oklahoma". Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v017/v017p007.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14. 

[edit] Further reading

  • James Taylor Carson, Searching for the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999).
  • H. B. Cushman, History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Natchez Indians (originally published 1899; reprinted Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999).
  • Clara Sue Kidwell, Choctaws and Missionaries in Mississippi, 1818-1918 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995).
  • Greg O'Brien, Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750-1830 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, forthcoming).
  • Richard White,The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983).
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