Religion in Europe

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Europe religiosity[2][3][4]
Catholicism
  
 35%
Orthodoxy
  
 26.7%
No religion
  
 18%
Protestantism
  
 13.7%
Islam
  
 5.2%
Others
  
 1.4%

Religion in Europe has been a major influence on art, culture, philosophy and law. The largest religion in Europe for at least a millennium and a half has been Christianity. Three countries in Southeastern Europe have Muslim majorities. Ancient European religions included veneration for deities such as Zeus and Odin. Modern revival movements of these religions include Heathenism, Rodnovery, Romuva, Druidry, Wicca, and others. Smaller religions include Judaism, Dharmic religions, and some East Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups in Britain, France, and Kalmykia.

Over the last several decades, religious practice has been on the decline in a process of secularization.[5]

Contents

History[edit]

Little is known about the prehistoric religion of Neolithic Europe. Bronze and Iron Age religion in Europe as elsewhere was predominantly polytheistic (Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Finnish paganism, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, etc.). The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380. During the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent Christianization, a process essentially complete with the Christianization of Scandinavia in the High Middle Ages. The emergence of the notion of "Europe" or "Western World" is intimately connected with the idea of "Christendom", especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise of Islam from the 8th century, a constellation that led to the Crusades, which although unsuccessful militarily were an important step in the emergence of a religious identity of Europe. At all times, traditions of folk religion existed largely independent from official denomination or dogmatic theology.

The Great Schism of the 11th and Reformation of the 16th century were to tear apart Christendom into hostile factions, and following the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, atheism and agnosticism became widespread in Western Europe. 19th century Orientalism contributed to a certain popularity of Buddhism, and the 20th century brought increasing syncretism, New Age, and various new religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. The latest history brought increased secularisation, and religious pluralism.[6]

Religiosity[edit]

European countries have experienced a decline in church membership and church attendance.[7] A relevant example of ongoing trend is Sweden where the church of Sweden, previously the state-church until 2000, claimed to have 82.9% of the Swedish population as its flock in 2000. Surveys showed this had dropped to 72.9% by 2008.[8] However in the 2005 eurobarometer poll only 23%[9] and in the 2010 eurobarometer poll only 18%[1] of the Swedish population said they believed in a personal God.

Gallup poll 2007–2008[edit]

Lack of Importance of Religion in Europe by Gallup poll (2007–2008)
Country Percentage
 Estonia
  
 84%
 Sweden
  
 83%
 Denmark
  
 80%
 Norway
  
 78%
 Azerbaijan
  
 74%
 Czech Republic
  
 74%
 France
  
 73%
 United Kingdom
  
 71%
 Finland
  
 69%
 Netherlands
  
 66%
 Belarus
  
 65%
 Russia
  
 63%
 Albania
  
 63%
 Bulgaria
  
 62%
 Latvia
  
 62%
 Belgium
  
 61%
 Hungary
  
 59%
 Slovenia
  
 59%
 Spain
  
 59%
 Germany
  
 57%
 Switzerland
  
 56%
 Ukraine
  
 54%
 Lithuania
  
 52%
 Slovakia
  
 51%
 Montenegro
  
 48%
 Serbia
  
 45%
 Austria
  
 42%
 Ireland
  
 42%
 Moldova
  
 31%
 Croatia
  
 30%
 Greece
  
 30%
 Armenia
  
 29%
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
  
 29%
 Portugal
  
 27%
 Italy
  
 26%
 Cyprus
  
 24%
 Poland
  
 23%
 Georgia
  
 22%
 Macedonia
  
 20%
 Romania
  
 18%
 Turkey
  
 9%

During 2007–2008, a Gallup poll asked in several countries the question "Does religion occupy an important place in your life?" The table on right shows percentage of people who answered "No".[10]

Eurobarometer poll 2010[edit]

The Eurobarometer Poll 2010[1] found that, on average, 51% of the citizens of EU member states state that they "believe in God", 26% "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" while 20% "do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force". 3% declined to answer. According to a recent study (Dogan, Mattei, Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline), 47% of Frenchmen declared themselves as agnostic in 2003. This situation is often called "Post-Christian Europe". A decrease in religiousness and church attendance in western Europe (especially Denmark, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden) has been noted, despite a concurrent increase in Eastern Europe, especially in Greece (2% in 1 year)[citation needed]. The Eurobarometer poll must be taken with caution, however, as there are discrepancies between it and national census results. For example in the United Kingdom, the 2001 census revealed over 70% of the population regarded themselves as "Christian" with only 15% professing to have "no religion", though the wording of the question has been criticized as "leading" by the British Humanist Association.[11] Romania, one of the most religious countries in Europe, witnessed a threefold increase in the number of atheists between 2002 and 2011, as revealed by the most recent national census.[12]

Eurobarometer Poll 2005 chart results

The following is a list of European countries ranked by religiosity, based on belief in a God, according to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010.[1] The 2010 Eurobarometer Poll asked whether the person believed "there is a God", believed "there is some sort of spirit of life force", or "didn't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force".

Eurobarometer Poll 2010[1]
Country "I believe
there is a God"		 "I believe there is some
sort of spirit or life force"		 "I don't believe there is any sort
of spirit, God or life force"
Malta Malta 94% 4% 2%
Romania Romania 92% 7% 1%
Cyprus Cyprus 88% 8% 3%
Greece Greece 79% 16% 4%
Poland Poland 79% 14% 5%
Italy Italy 74% 20% 6%
Republic of Ireland Ireland 70% 20% 7%
Portugal Portugal 70% 15% 12%
Slovakia Slovakia 63% 23% 13%
Spain Spain 59% 20% 19%
Lithuania Lithuania 47% 37% 12%
Luxembourg Luxembourg 46% 22% 24%
Hungary Hungary 45% 34% 20%
Austria Austria 44% 38% 12%
Germany Germany 44% 25% 27%
Latvia Latvia 38% 48% 11%
United Kingdom United Kingdom 37% 33% 25%
Belgium Belgium 37% 31% 27%
Bulgaria Bulgaria 36% 43% 15%
Finland Finland 33% 42% 22%
Slovenia Slovenia 32% 36% 26%
Denmark Denmark 28% 47% 24%
Netherlands Netherlands 28% 39% 30%
France France 27% 27% 40%
Estonia Estonia 18% 50% 29%
Sweden Sweden 18% 45% 34%
Czech Republic Czech Republic 16% 44% 37%
European Union EU27 51% 26% 20%
Turkey Turkey (not in EU) 94% 1% 1%
Croatia Croatia (not in EU) 69% 22% 7%
Switzerland Switzerland (not in EU) 44% 39% 11%
Iceland Iceland (not in EU) 31% 49% 18%
Norway Norway (not in EU) 22% 44% 29%

The decrease in theism is illustrated in the 1981 and 1999 according to the World Values Survey,[13] both for traditionally strongly theist countries (Spain: 86.8%:81.1%; Ireland 94.8%:93.7%) and for traditionally secular countries (Sweden: 51.9%:46.6%; France 61.8%:56.1%; Netherlands 65.3%:58.0%). Some countries nevertheless show increase of theism over the period, Italy 84.1%:87.8%, Denmark 57.8%:62.1%. For a comprehensive study on Europe, see Mattei Dogan's "Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline" in Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion. Turkey and Malta are the most religious countries and Estonia and Czech Republic are the least religious countries in Europe.

Maps[edit]
Belief that "there is a God" per country based on old Eurobaromer 2005 poll 
Belief that "there is some sort of spirit or life force" per country based on old Eurobarometer 2005 poll 
No belief in "any sort of spirit, God or life force" per country based on old Eurobarometer 2005 poll 

Abrahamic religions[edit]

Baha'i Faith[edit]

There are an estimated 5,000–6,000 Bahá'ís in Germany.[14] Including Iranian Bahá'í refugees and convert Danes, the modern community was[when?] about 330 Bahá'ís in Denmark.[15] The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying mostly on the World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated 4,900 Bahá'ís in Italy in 2005. In 2004, there were about 5,000 Bahá'ís in the United Kingdom.[16]

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Christianity in Europe

The vast majority of theist Europeans describe themselves as Christians, divided into a large number of denominations. Christian denominations are usually classed in three categories: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism (a diverse group including Lutheranism-Zwinglianism, Calvinism-Presbyterianism, and Anglicanism as well as numerous minor denominations, including Baptism, Methodism, Evangelicalism, Pentecostalism, etc.).

Throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture,[17] The Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science.[18][19]

Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christian,[20]

View of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the largest Major basilica in the Roman Catholic Church.
 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2011)

Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination with adherents mostly existing in Latin Europe (which includes France, Italy, Spain, Southern [Wallon] Belgium, Portugal and, Romania), Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Western Ukraine, and the Czech Republic, but also the southern parts of Germanic Europe (which includes Austria, Luxembourg, Northern [Flemish] Belgium, Southern and Western Germany, and Liechtenstein).

The Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia is one of the largest Orthodox cathedrals.
Orthodox Cathedral of Korçë.
The St John's Church, Bergen is a Lutheran church in Norway.
Calvinist Temple Saint-Étienne (Protestant St. Stephen's Church) in France

There are numerous minor Protestant movements, including various Evangelical congregations.

Islam[edit]

Baitul Futuh Mosque in the UK, the largest in western Europe.
Further information: Islam in Europe

Islam came to parts of European islands and coasts on the Mediterranean during the 8th century Muslim conquests. In the Iberian Peninsula and parts of southern France, various Muslim states existed before the Reconquista; Islam spread in southern Italy briefly through the Emirate of Sicily and Emirate of Bari. During the Ottoman expansion, Islam was spread into the Balkans and even part of central Europe. Muslim have also been historically present in modern-day Russia, beginning with Volga Bulgaria in the 10th century and the conversion of the Golden Horde to Islam. In recent years, Muslims have migrated to Europe as residents and temporary workers.

Muslims make up over 98% of the population in Turkey,[21] 90% in Kosovo, 40% in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[22] 70% in Albania,[23][24] 33% in Macedonia,[25] 19,11% in Montenegro,[26] between 10 and 15% in Russia,[27] 9% in France,[28][29][30] 8% in Bulgaria,[31] 6% in the Netherlands, 5% in Denmark, just over 4% in Switzerland and Austria, between 3 and 4% in Greece and almost 3% in the United Kingdom.[32] And over 1% of Italy.

Judaism[edit]

Further information: History of the Jews in Europe, Jews and Judaism in Europe, Jews by country
The Jubilee Synagogue in Prague, Czech Republic.

The Jews were dispersed within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century. At one time Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent; throughout the Middle Ages, Jews were frequently accused of ritual murder and faced pogroms and legal discrimination. The Holocaust perpetrated by Nazi Germany decimated Jewish population, and today, France is the home of largest Jewish community in Europe with 1% of the total population.[33] Other European countries with notable Jewish populations include Germany, the United Kingdom, and Russia.

Deism[edit]

Main article: Deism

During the Enlightenment, Deism became influential especially in England and France. Biblical concepts were challenged by concepts such as a heleocentric universe and other scientific challenges to the Bible.[34] Notable early deists include Voltaire.[35]

Irreligion[edit]

Further information: Secularism, Irreligion, and Postchristianity

The trend towards secularism during the 20th century has a number of reasons, depending on the individual country:

  • France has been traditionally laicist since the French Revolution. However, since the French state does not collect any statistics on religiosity, there are no official figures on the recent development of religious demographics.
  • Much of Eastern Europe was secularized as a matter of state doctrine under Communist rule. Albania was an officially (and constitutionally binding) atheist state from 1967 to 1991.[36] The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%, traditionally Catholic) and Estonia (16%, traditionally Lutheran).[37] Other post-communist countries, however, have seen the opposite effect, with religion being very important in countries such as Romania and Poland.
  • The traditionally Protestant countries have seen a general decrease in church attendance since the 1970s. This concerns Germany, the UK, the Netherlands and Scandinavia.[38]

The trend towards secularism has been less pronounced in traditionally Catholic countries. Greece as the only traditionally Eastern Orthodox country in Europe which has not been part of the communist Eastern Bloc also retains a very high religiosity, with in excess of 95% of Greeks adhering to the Greek Orthodox Church. The trend is also visible in the decrease of the importance of marriage: in 2011, 39.5% of births in the European Union were outside of marriage.[39] Several countries in Europe recorded a majority of births outside of marriage in 2011 - these include Iceland (65.0%), Estonia (59.7%), Slovenia (56.8%), Bulgaria (56.1%), France (55.8%), Norway (55.0%), Sweden (54.3%).[39] These countries tend to be less religious ones (less than half of the population believing in God) whereas half of the European population believes in God.[40]

According to Pew Research Center survey in 2012 religiously unaffiliated (include agnostic and atheist) make up about 18.2% of Europeans population.[41] according to the same survey religiously unaffiliated make up a majority of the population only in two European countries: Czech Republic (75%) and Estonia (60%).[41]

Agnosticism[edit]

Main article: Agnosticism

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, atheism or agnosticism has increased, with falling church attendance and membership in various European countries.[42] The 2010 eurobarometer poll found that on total average, of the EU27 population, 51% "believe in a God", 26% believe in "some sort of spirit or life force" and 20% had neither of these forms of belief.[1] Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with strict upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education and those leaning towards right-wing politics.[37]:10-11

Atheism[edit]

A 2010 Eurostat Eurobarometer poll, revealed that 51% of European Union citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 26% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 20% that "they do not believe there is a spirit, God, nor life force". Results were varied widely between different countries, on the one end 94% of Maltese respondents stating that they believe in God and on the other end only 16% of the people of Czech Republic stating the same.[1]

Neopaganism[edit]

Wicca[edit]

Wicca English pronunciation: /ˈwɪkə/ is a modern pagan religion. Developed in England in the first half of the 20th century,[43] Wicca was popularised in the 1950s and early 1960s by a retired British civil servant named Gerald Gardner, who at the time called it the "witch cult" and "witchcraft", and its adherents "the Wica".[44][non-primary source needed] From the 1960s onward, the name of the religion was normalised to "Wicca".[45]

Druidry[edit]

The religious development of Druidry was largely influenced by Iolo Morganwg.[46] Modern practises aim to imitate the practises of the Celtic peoples of the Iron Age.[47]

Dharmic religions[edit]

Jain temple in Antwerp, Belgium

Buddhism[edit]

Buddhism is thinly spread throughout Europe, and the fastest growing religion in recent years [48][49] with about 3 million adherents.[50][51] In Kalmykia, Tibetan Buddhism is prevalent.[52]

Hinduism[edit]

Hinduism mainly among Indian immigrants. Growing rapidly in recent years, notably in the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands.[53][54] In 1998, there were an estimated 1.4 million Hindu adherents in Europe.[55]

Jainism[edit]

Jainism, small membership rolls, mainly among Indian immigrants in Belgium and the United Kingdom, as well as several converts from western and northern Europe.[56][57]

Sikhism[edit]

Sikhism has nearly 1 million adherents in Europe. Most of the community live in United Kingdom (750,000) and Italy (70,000).[58][59] Around 10,000 in Belgium and France.[60] Netherlands and Germany have a Sikh population of 12,000.[61][62] All other countries have 5,000 or fewer Sikhs.

Other religions[edit]

Other religions represented in Europe includes:

Official religions[edit]

A number of countries in Europe have official religions, including Liechtenstein, Monaco, the Vatican City (Catholic); Greece (Eastern Orthodox); Denmark, Iceland and the United Kingdom (England alone) (Anglican). In Switzerland, some cantons are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Some Swiss villages even have their religion as well as the village name written on the signs at their entrances.

Georgia has no established church, but the Georgian Orthodox Church enjoys de facto privileged status. Much the same applies in Germany with the Evangelical Church and the Roman Catholic Church, the Old Catholic Church, and the Jewish community. In Finland, both the Finnish Orthodox Church and the Lutheran Church are official. England, a part of the United Kingdom, has Anglicanism as its official religion. Scotland, another part of the UK, has Presbyterianism as its national church, but it is no longer "official". In Sweden, the national church used to be Lutheranism, but it is no longer "official" since 2000. Azerbaijan, France, Ireland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain and Turkey are officially "secular".

Rastafari, communities in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and elsewhere. Traditional African Religions (including Muti), mainly in the United Kingdom and France, including West African Vodun and Haitian Vodou (Voodoo), mainly among West African and black Caribbean immigrants in the UK and France.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g "Special Eurobarometer, biotechnology, page 204" (PDF). Fieldwork: Jan-Feb 2010. 
  2. ^ Christianity in Europe → 46% Catholics of all 76.2% Christians is about 35% in total, 35% Orthodox of all is about 26.7% in total and 18% Protestants (other traditional Christians) of all is about 13.7% in total.
  3. ^ The 2005 Eurostat Eurobarometer poll states 18% of irreligious.
  4. ^ http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf Islam in Europe states 3.2% Muslims in European Union, but non-European Union countries harbour even more Muslims so percents go to about 5.2%.
  5. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/arts/31iht-idlede1.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all
  6. ^ Henkel, Reinhard; Knippenberg, Hans (2005). Knippenberg, ed. The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 7–9. ISBN 9-055-89248-3. 
  7. ^ Church attendance faces decline almost everywhere retrieved 3 July 2011
  8. ^ (Swedish) Svenska Kyrkan Statistiek pagina Medlemmar 1972-2008 excel file
  9. ^ Eurobarometer Poll 2005
  10. ^ Gallup Poll
  11. ^ Census 2011
  12. ^ "Tot mai mulți români "s-au lepădat" de Dumnezeu. HARTA ATEILOR din România Citiţi mai mult: Tot mai mulți români "s-au lepădat" de Dumnezeu. HARTA ATEILOR din România - Social > EVZ.ro http://www.evz.ro/detalii/stiri/tot-mai-multi-romani-s-au-lepadat-de-dumnezeu-harta-ateilor-din-romania-1014215.html#ixzz2PUnVRlWg EVZ.ro". December 4, 2012. Retrieved April 4, 2013. 
  13. ^ World Values Survey, Religion and morale: Believe in God. Accessed 2007-07-25
  14. ^ "Verschiedene Gemeinschaften / neuere religiöse Bewegungen". Religionen in Deutschland: Mitgliederzahlen (Membership of religions in Germany). REMID – the "Religious Studies Media and Information Service" in Germany. 2007-8. Retrieved 17 July 2008. 
  15. ^ Warburg, Margit (2004). Peter Smith, ed. Bahá'ís in the West. Kalimat Press. pp. 228–63. ISBN 1-890688-11-8. 
  16. ^ "In the United Kingdom, Bahá'ís promote a dialogue on diversity". One Country 16 (2). July–September 2004. 
  17. ^ Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6. 
  18. ^ Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. Early Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4. 
  19. ^ Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6. 
  20. ^ http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx Global Christianity.
  21. ^ KONDA Research and Consultancy (2007-09-08). "Religion, Secularism and the Veil in daily life" (PDF). Milliyet. 
  22. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Bosnia and Herzegovina - People
  23. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Albania - People
  24. ^ Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009), Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population (PDF), Pew Research Center, retrieved 2009-10-08 [dead link]
  25. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Macedonia
  26. ^ "Popis stanovništva, domaćinstava i stanova u Crnoj Gori 2011. godine" [Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011] (PDF) (Press release) (in Serbo-Croatian and English). Statistical office, Montenegro. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 2013-02-24. 
  27. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Russia
  28. ^ Minister of the Interior (France) (28 June 2010). "Entre 5 et 6 Millions de Musulmans en France" (in French). Le Point. 
  29. ^ Minister of the Interior (France), Article du Figaro, 28th June 2010
  30. ^ Minister of the Interior (France), Article de Libération
  31. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Bulgaria
  32. ^ Muslims in Europe: Country guide, BBC News, 23 December 2005, accessed 3 May 2007
  33. ^ CIA The World Factbook -- France
  34. ^ Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment Ellen Judy Wilson, Peter Hanns Reill - 2004
  35. ^ The Founders' Facade R. L. Worthy - 2004
  36. ^ Gallagher, Amelia (1997). "The Albanian atheist state, 1967–1991". 
  37. ^ a b "Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005. Retrieved 2007-07-21. 
  38. ^ Zuckerman (2005), p. 24.
  39. ^ a b http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tps00018
  40. ^ Evolution on the family in Europe page 42 out of 82[unreliable source?]
  41. ^ a b Religiously Unaffiliated
  42. ^ Zuckerman, Phil (2005). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2007-07-21. 
  43. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. p. vii. ISBN 0-19-820744-1. 
  44. ^ Gardner, Gerald B (1999) [1954]. Witchcraft Today. Lake Toxaway, NC: Mercury Publishing. ISBN 0-8065-2593-2. OCLC 44936549. 
  45. ^ Seims, Melissa (2008). "Wica or Wicca? - Politics and the Power of Words". The Cauldron (129). 
  46. ^ Grimoire for the Apprentice Wizard - Page 353, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart - 2004
  47. ^ Bonewits 2006. pp. 128-140.
  48. ^ http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf
  49. ^ http://www.asiantribune.com/?q=node/10418
  50. ^ "Vipassana Foundation - Buddhists around the world". 
  51. ^ "BuddhaNet - Buddhism in the West". 
  52. ^ http://infocus.asiaportal.info/2012/02/06/contemporary-buddhist-revival-in-kalmykia-survey-of-the-present-state-of-religiosity/
  53. ^ Curtis, Polly (29 November 2007). "Hindu school is first to make vegetarianism a condition of entry". UK: The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-07-30. 
  54. ^ "Adherents by Location". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2012-07-30. 
  55. ^ "Hinduism". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2012-07-30. 
  56. ^ http://www.multifaithcentre.org/jainism/58-jain-origins-and-key-organisations-in-the-uk
  57. ^ http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/religion/jainism.html
  58. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/3015089.stm
  59. ^ http://www.nriinternet.com/EUROPE/ITALY/2004/111604Gurdwara.htm
  60. ^ http://www.brusselnieuws.be/site/rubrieken/1091100512/page.htm?&newsID=1136986257
  61. ^ http://www.sikhs.nl/
  62. ^ http://fateh.sikhnet.com/s/SikhGermanLeaders
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