Religion in Turkey

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The interior of the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, one of the highest achievements of Islamic architecture.

Islam is the largest religion of Turkey. Around 99.0% percent of the population is registered as Muslim.[1][2] Most Muslims in Turkey are Sunnis forming about 70%, and Alevis (branch of Shia Islam) form about 20% of the Muslim population.[3] There is also a Twelver Shia community which forms about 3% of the Muslim population.[4] Christians (Oriental Orthodoxy, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic) and Jews (Sephardi), who comprise the non-Muslim population make up 0.7% of the total.[1][5][6]

Turkey is "officially" a secular country with no official religion since the constitutional amendment in 1924 and later strengthened in the Kemalist Ideology, alongside the Atatürk's reforms and the appliance of laïcité by Atatürk at the end of 1937. However, currently all public schools from elementary to high school hold mandatory religion classes which only focus on the Sunni sector of Islam. In these classes, children are required to learn prayers and other religious practices which belong specifically to Sunnism. Thus, although Turkey claims to be a secular state, the enforcement of secularism in public grade schools is controversial. Its application to join the EU divided existing members, some of which questioned whether a Muslim country could fit in. Turkey accused its EU opponents of favouring a "Christian club".[7]

Beginning in the 1980s, the role of religion in the state has been a divisive issue, as influential factions challenged the complete secularization called for by Kemalism and the observance of Islamic practices experienced a substantial revival. In the early 2000s (decade), Islamic groups challenged the concept of the secular state with increasing vigor after the Erdoğan government had calmed the issue in 2003. Although the Turkish Government states that 99% of the population is Muslim, academic research and polls give different results of the percentage of Muslims which are usually lower, but most of which are above the 90% range. In the most recent poll conducted by Sabanci University, 98.3% of Turks revealed they were Muslim.[8] Of that, 16% said they were "extremely religious", 39% saying they were "somewhat religious", and 32% saying they were "not religious".[8] 3% of Turks declare themselves with no religious beliefs.[8]

Contents

Islam [edit]

Main article: Islam in Turkey
The Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul.

Islam is the religion with the largest community of followers in the country, where most of the population is nominally Muslim,[9] of whom over 75% belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. Over 20% of the population is Shia Alevi. There is also a small Bektashi community belonging to a Sufi order of Islam that is indigenous to Turkey, but also has numerous followers in the Balkan peninsula. Islam arrived in the region that comprises present-day Turkey, particularly the eastern provinces of the country, as early as the 7th century. The mainstream Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is largely organized by the state, through the Religious Affairs Directorate, which was established in 1924 following the abolition of the Caliphate and controls all mosques and Muslim clerics, and is officially the highest religious authority in the country.[10]

As of today, there are thousands of historical mosques throughout the country which are still active. Notable mosques built in the Seljuk and Ottoman periods include the Sultan Ahmed Mosque and Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, the Yeşil Mosque in Bursa, the Alaeddin Mosque and Mevlana Mosque in Konya, and the Great Mosque in Divriği, among many others. Large mosques built in the Republic of Turkey period include the Kocatepe Mosque in Ankara and the Sabancı Mosque in Adana.

Other religions [edit]

Main articles: Christianity in Turkey, History of the Jews in Turkey, and Bahá'í Faith in Turkey
St. Anthony of Padua Church in the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul
Dome of the Istanbul Ashkenazi Synagogue

The remainder of the population belongs to other faiths, particularly Christian denominations (Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Syriac Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant), and Judaism (mostly Sephardi Jews, and a smaller Ashkenazi community.)[11] Turkey has numerous important sites for Judaism and Christianity, being one of the birth places of the latter. Sinced the 4th century, Istanbul (Constantinople) has been the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (unofficially Fener Rum Ortodoks Patrikhanesi), which is one of the fourteen autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, and the primus inter pares (first among equals) in the Eastern Orthodox communion.[12] However, the Turkish government does not recognize the ecumenical status of Patriarch Bartholomew I. The Halki seminary remains closed since 1971 due to the Patriarchate's refusal to accept the supervision of the Turkish Ministry of Education on the school's educational curricula; whereas the Turkish government wants the school to operate as a branch of the Faculty of Theology at Istanbul University.[13]

Istanbul, since 1461, is the seat of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople. There have been 84 individual Patriarchs since establishment of the Patriarchate. The first Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople was Hovakim I who ruled from 1461 to 1478. Sultan Mehmed II allowed the establishment of the Patriarchate in 1461, just eight years after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Patriarch was recognized as the religious and secular leader of all Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, and carried the title of milletbaşı or ethnarch as well as patriarch. 75 patriarchs have ruled during the Ottoman period (1461-1908), 4 patriarchs in the Young Turks period (1908–1922) and 5 patriarchs in the current secular Republic of Turkey (1923–present). The current Armenian Patriarch is Mesrob II (Mutafyan) (Մեսրոպ Բ. Մութաֆեան), who has been in office since 1998.

There are many churches and synagogues throughout the country, such as the Church of St. George, the St. Anthony of Padua Church, the Cathedral of the Holy Spirit, the Neve Shalom Synagogue, the Italian Synagogue and the Ashkenazi Synagogue in Istanbul. There are also many historical churches which have been transformed into mosques or museums, such as the Hagia Sophia and Chora Church in Istanbul, the Church of St. Peter in Antakya, and the Church of St. Nicholas in Myra, among many others. There are probably 10[14] to 20[15] thousand Bahá'ís, and around a hundred Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assemblies in Turkey.[16]

Secularism [edit]

Main article: Secularism in Turkey
Republic Protests took place in 2007 in support of state secularism

Turkey has a secular constitution, with no official state religion.[17] The strong tradition of secularism in Turkey is essentially similar to the French model of laïcité.[18] The constitution recognizes the freedom of religion for individuals, whereas the religious communities are placed under the protection and jurisdiction of the state and can't become involved in the political process (e.g. by forming a religious party) or establish faith-based schools. No political party can claim that it represents a form of religious belief; nevertheless, religious sensibilities are generally represented through conservative parties.[18][19] Turkey prohibits by law the wearing of religious headcover and theo-political symbolic garments for both genders in government buildings, schools, and universities;[20] the law was upheld by the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights as "legitimate" in the Leyla Şahin v. Turkey case on November 10, 2005.[21]

Beginning in the 1980s, the role of religion in the state has been a divisive issue, as influential factions challenged the complete secularization called for by Kemalism and the observance of Islamic practices experienced a substantial revival. In the early 2000s (decade), Islamic groups challenged the concept of the secular state with increasing vigor after the Erdoğan government had calmed the issue in 2003.

Reforms going in the direction of secularism have been completed under Atatürk (abolition of the Caliphate, etc..).
However, Turkey is not strictly a secular state:

  • there is no separation between religion and State
  • there is a tutelage of religion by the state

However, each is free of his religious beliefs.

Religion is mentioned on the identity documents and there is an administration called "Presidency of Religious Affairs" or Diyanet[22] which exploits Islam to legitimize sometimes State and manages 77,500 mosques. This state agency, established by Ataturk (1924), finance only Sunni Muslim worship. Other religions must ensure a financially self-sustaining running and they face administrative obstacles during operation.[23]

When harvesting tax, all Turkish citizens are equal. The tax rate is not based on religion. However, through the "Presidency of Religious Affairs" or Diyanet, Turkish citizens are not equal in the use of revenue. The Presidency of Religious Affairs, which has a budget over U.S. $ 2.5 billion in 2012, finance only Sunni Muslim worship.

This situation presents a theological problem, insofar as the religion of Prophet Muhammad stipulates, through the notion of haram (Qur'an, Surah 6, verse 152), that we must "give full measure and full weight in all justice”.

However, since it was set up, Diyanet, through taxation, use the resources of non-Sunni citizens to fund its administration and only Sunni places of worship.

For exemple, Câferî Muslims (mostly Azeris) and Alevi Bektashi (mostly Turkmen) participate in the financing of the mosques and the salaries of Sunni imams, while their places of worship, which are not officially recognized by the State, don't receive any funding.

Theoretically, Turkey, through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), recognizes the civil, political and cultural rights of non-Muslim minorities.
In practice, Turkey only recognizes Greek, Armenian and Jewish religious minorities without granting them all the rights mentioned in the Treaty of Lausanne.
Alevi Bektashi Câferî Muslims,[24] Latin Catholics and Protestants are not recognized officially.

Situation of religions in Turkey
Religions Estimated population Expropriation
measures[25]		 Official recognition through the Constitution or international treaties Government Financing of places of worship and religious staff
Islam - Sunnite 70 to 85% (52 to 64 millions) No Yes through the Diyanet mentioned in the Constitution (art.136) [26] Yes through the Diyanet [27]
Twelver Islam - Bektasi 15 to 25% (11 to 19 millions) Yes [24] No. In 1826 with the abolition of the Janissary corps, the Bektashi tekke (dervish convent) were closed [24][28] · [29] No [27]
Twelver Islam - Alevi No.[29] In the early fifteenth century,[30] due to the unsustainable Ottoman oppression, Alevi supported Shah Ismail I. who had Turkmen origins. Shah Ismail I. supporters, who wear a red cap with twelve folds in reference to the 12 Imams were called Qizilbash. Ottomans who were Arabized and persanised considered Qizilbash (Alevi) as enemies because of their Turkmen origins.[30] Today, cemevi, places of worship of Alevi Bektashi have no official recognition.
Twelver Islam - Câferî 4% (3 millions) [31] No [29] No [27]
Twelver Islam - Alawite 300 to 350 000 [32] No [29] No [27]
Judaism 20,000 Yes [25] Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[29] No [27]
Christian - Protestant 5,000 No [29] No [27]
Christian – Latin Catholics No [29] No [27]
Christian – Greek Catholics Yes [25] Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[29] No [27]
Christian - Orthodox - Greek (Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople) Yes [25] Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[29] No [27]
Christian - Orthodox - Armenian (Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople) 57,000 Yes [25] Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[29] No [27]
Christian - Catholics Chaldean Christians (Armenian) 3,000 Yes [25] Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[29] No [27]
Christian - Syriac Orthodox and Catholics Churches 15,000 Yes [25] No [29] No [27]
Yazidi 377 No [29] No [27]


With more than 100,000 employees, the Diyanet is a kind of state within the state[33].
In 2013, with over 4.6 billion TL (Turkish Lira), Diyanet or Ministry of Religious Affairs, occupies the 16th position of central government expenditure.
The budget allocated to Diyanet is:

Diyanet's Budget in 2013 - Source : TBMM, Turkish Parliament, 2013.
  • 1.6 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of the Interior[34]
  • 1.8 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Health[34]
  • 1.9 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Industry, Science and Technology[34]
  • 2.4 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning[34]
  • 2.5 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism[34]
  • 2.9 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs[34]
  • 3.4 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Economy[34]
  • 3.8 times larger than the budget of the Ministry of Development[34]
  • 4.6 times larger than the budget allocated to MIT – Secret Services [34]
  • 5,0 times larger than the budget allocated to the Department of Emergency and Disaster Management[34]
  • 7.7 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources[34]
  • 9.1 times larger than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Customs and Trade[34]
  • 10.7 times greater than the budget allocated to Coast Guard[34]
  • 21.6 times greater than the budget allocated to the Ministry of the European Union[34]
  • 242 times larger than the budget for the National Security Council[34]
  • 268 times more important than the budget allocated to the Ministry of Public Employee[34]

Diyanet's budget represents:

  • 79% of the budget of the Police[34]
  • 67% of the budget of the Ministry of Justice[34]
  • 57% of the budget of the Public Hospitals[34]
  • 31% of the budget of the National Police[34]
  • 23% of the budget of the Turkish Army, that is 23% of the budget of NATO's second army.[34]

Religious organization [edit]

Main article: Presidency of Religious Affairs
Sultan Ahmet mosque, Istanbul Turkey.

The mainstream Hanafite school of Sunni Islam is largely organised by the state, through the Diyanet Isleri Baskanligi (Religious Affairs Directorate), which controls all mosques and Muslim clerics. The directorate is criticized by some Alevi Muslims for not supporting their beliefs and instead favoring the Sunni faith.

The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (Patrik) is the head of the Greek Orthodox Church in Turkey, and also serves as the spiritual leader of all Orthodox churches throughout the world. The Armenian Patriarch is the head of the Armenian Church in Turkey, while the Jewish community is led by the Hahambasi, Turkey's Chief Rabbi, based in Istanbul. All these groups share the same criticism of the directorate.

Historical Christian sites [edit]

Antioch (Antakya), the city where "the disciples were first called Christians" according to the biblical Book of Acts, is located in modern Turkey, as are most of the areas visited by St. Paul during his missions. The Epistle to the Galatians, Epistle to the Ephesians, Epistle to the Colossians, First Epistle of Peter, and Book of Revelation are addressed to recipients in the territory of modern Turkey. Additionally, all of the first Seven Ecumenical Councils that define Christianity for Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christians took place in the territory that is now Turkey.

Freedom of religion [edit]

Main article: Freedom of religion in Turkey
Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and Greek Orthodox Patriarch Gennadios II. Mehmed II not only allowed the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople to remain active in the city after its conquest by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, he also established the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1461, as part of the Millet system. The Byzantines used to regard the Armenian Church as heretic and didn't allow it to operate inside the Walls of Constantinople.

The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the Government imposes some restrictions on Muslim and much more on other religious groups and on Muslim religious expression in government offices and state-run institutions, including universities.[35]

Although proselytizing is legal in the country, non-Sunni Muslims, Christians, and Jews face a few restrictions and occasional harassment for alleged proselytizing or unauthorized meetings. The Government continues to oppose "Islamic fundamentalism."[35]

Persons wishing to convert from Islam to another religion sometimes experience social harassment and violence from relatives and neighbors.[35]

Turkey has a democratic government and strong tradition of secularism. Nevertheless, the Turkish state's interpretation of secularism has resulted in religious freedom violations for many of Turkey's citizens. The 2009 U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom report placed Turkey on its Watch List' with countries such as Afghanistan, Cuba, the Russian Federation, and Venezuela.[36]

According to the report, the situation for Jews in Turkey is better than in other majority Muslim countries. Jews report being able to worship freely and their places of worship generally government protection when it is required. Jews also operate their own schools, hospitals, two elderly homes, and welfare institutions, as well as a newspaper. Nevertheless, concerns have arisen in recent years because of attacks by extremists on synagogues in 2003 and 2004, as well as growing anti-Semitism in some sectors of the Turkish media and society.[citation needed]

Roman Catholics have sometimes also been subjected to violent societal attacks. In February 2006, an Italian Catholic priest was shot to death in his church in Trabzon, reportedly by a youth angered over the caricatures of the Muslim prophet in Danish newspapers. Prime Minister Erdoğan and other government officials strongly condemned the killing. A 16 year-old boy was subsequently charged with the murder and sentenced to 19 years in prison. In December 2007, a 19 year-old stabbed a Catholic priest outside a church in Izmir; the priest was treated and released the following day. According to newspaper reports, the assailant, who had been arrested, admitted that he had been influenced by a recent television program that depicted Christian missionaries as infiltrators who take advantage of poor people. Roman Catholics also have had their property confiscated by the government.[36]

The Armenian Patriarch, head of the Armenian Orthodox Church, also lacks the status of legal personality and there is no seminary in Turkey to educate its clerics since the closure of the last remaining seminar by the state. As with the Ecumenical Patriarch, the Armenian Patriarchate experiences direct Turkish government interference in the selection of its religious leadership, and the Turkish state also prevents the Armenian Orthodox community, which the State Department estimates at 65,000, from operating an independent seminary. In 2006, the Armenian Patriarch submitted a proposal to the Minister of Education to enable his community to establish a faculty in Armenian at a state university with instruction by the Patriarch. Under current restrictions, only the Sunni Muslim community can legally operate institutions to train new clergy in Turkey for future leadership.

Patriarch Bartholomew I, most senior bishop among equals in the traditional hierarchy of Orthodox Christianity, said that he felt "crucified" living in Turkey under a government that did not recognize the ecumenical status of Patriarch and would like to see his Patriarchate die out.[37] The AK Party government criticized Bartholomew I, deputy prime minister Arınç said that the Orthodox Church enjoyed their religious rights during the AK Party government and foreign minister, Davutoğlu said that he wished those remarks were a "slip of the tongue".[38][39] In response to the government's criticism, Bartholomew's lawyer said when the patriarchate was criticizing government he was referring to the state, not this government in particular.[40] Erdoğan, Turkish Prime Minister said that “When it comes to the question, ‘Are you recognizing [him] as ecumenical?’ I wouldn’t be annoyed by it [this title]. Since it didn’t annoy my ancestors, it will not annoy me, either. But it may annoy some [people] in my country”.[41] A number of the Church's properties and schools, such as the Halki Theological School and the Greek Orthodox orphanage in Büyükada have been expropriated or closed.[42] However, following a ruling by the European Court of Human Rights, the deed to the orphanage was returned to the Ecumenical Patriarchate on November 29, 2010.[43]

Religiosity [edit]

According to the KONDA Research and Consultancy survey on religiosity carried out throughout Turkey on 2007:[44]

  • 0.9% defined themselves as "someone with no religious conviction" (Atheist).
  • 2.3% defined themselves as "someone who does not believe in religious obligations" (Non-believer).
  • 34.3 % defined themselves as "a believer who does not fulfill religious obligations" (Believer).
  • 52.8% defined themselves as "a religious person who strives to fulfill religious obligations" (Religious)
  • 9.7% defined themselves as "a fully devout person fulfilling all religious obligations" (Fully devout).

And for specific religious practices:

The worship practices by the people in Turkey:[44]

Frequency of worship Regularly Sometimes Never
Performing ritual prayer 43.9% 41.7% 14.4%
Fasting 82.5% 12.1% 5.4%
Going to Friday prayer (men only) 56.1% 25.0% 18.9%
Going to mosque 24.4% 51.1% 24.5%
Praying 75.2% 22.5% 2.3%
Reading the Quran 26.3% 31.2% 42.5%

According to a 2003 study by Çarkoglu, Ergüder, and Kalaycıoğlu:[19]

Belief in ... Believes No belief No response
God 98.0% 1.7% 0.3%
Sin 97.0% 2.8% 0.2%
Heaven and hell 96.2% 3.4% 0.4%
Existence of spirit 95.5% 3.9% 0.6%
Afterlife 93.2% 6.3% 0.5%
Existence of the devil 92.1% 7.5% 0.4%

A Pew Research Center report of 2002 found that 65% of the people in Turkey say religion plays a very important role in their lives.[45]

According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2010:[46]

  • 94% of Turkish citizens responded: "I believe there is a God".
  • 1% responded: "I believe there is some sort of spirit or life force".
  • 1% responded: "I don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force".

See also [edit]

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b Country Profile - Turkey, January 2006, United States Library of Congress, 2008-01
  2. ^ "Turkey". World Factbook. CIA. 2007. 
  3. ^ http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/ALEVI.html
  4. ^ http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/shia.html
  5. ^ Shankland, David (2003). The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. Routledge (UK). p. 20. ISBN 0-7007-1606-8. "Some [researchers] claim that the number of Alevis is as high as 30 per cent of Turkey's population. Others state that there are as few as 10 per cent. My own feeling ... offered purely tentatively, is that the proportion of Turkeys' population that today holds itself to be Alevis is ... perhaps nearer to 15 per cent." 
  6. ^ "Turkey - A Brief Profile". United Nations Population Fund. 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-27. 
  7. ^ BBC - Muslims in Europe: Country profile
  8. ^ a b c Ankette Mezhep Soruları
  9. ^ Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs - Background Note: Turkey...
  10. ^ Basic Principles, Aims And Objectives, Presidency of Religious Affairs
  11. ^ United Nations Population Fund (2006). "Turkey - A Brief Profile". United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 2006-12-27. [dead link]
  12. ^ The Patriarchate of Constantinople (The Ecumenical Patriarchate) by Ronald Roberson
  13. ^ "The Patriarch Bartholomew". 60 Minutes. CBS. 20 December 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2010. 
  14. ^ "For the first time, Turkish Baha'i appointed as dean". The Muslim Network for Baha’i Rights. 2008-12-13. Retrieved 2008-12-15. 
  15. ^ "Turkey /Religions & Peoples". LookLex Encyclopedia. LookLex Ltd. 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-15. 
  16. ^ Walbridge, John (March 2002). "Chapter Four - The Baha'i Faith in Turkey". Occasional Papers in Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Studies 06 (1). 
  17. ^ Headscarf row goes to Turkey's roots. BBC News. 2003-10-29.
  18. ^ a b "Headscarf row goes to Turkey's roots". BBC News. 2003-10-29. Retrieved 2006-12-13. 
  19. ^ a b Çarkoglu, Ali; Rubin, Barry (2004). Religion and Politics in Turkey. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-34831-5. 
  20. ^ "The Islamic veil across Europe". British Broadcasting Corporation. 2006-11-17. Retrieved 2006-12-13. 
  21. ^ European Court of Human Rights (2005-11-10). "Leyla Şahin v. Turkey". ECHR. Retrieved 2006-11-30. 
  22. ^ http://www.diyanet.gov.tr
  23. ^ Samim Akgönül - Religions de Turquie, religions des Turcs: nouveaux acteurs dans l'Europe élargie - L'Harmattan - 2005 - 196 pages
  24. ^ a b c The World of the Alevis: Issues of Culture and Identity, Gloria L. Clarke
  25. ^ a b c d e f g http://www.la-croix.com/Religion/Urbi-Orbi/Monde/Le-gouvernement-turc-va-restituer-des-biens-saisis-a-des-minorites-religieuses-_NP_-2011-08-29-704560
  26. ^ http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa/anayasa_2011.pdf
  27. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m http://obtic.org/Dosyalar/Cahiers%20de%20l%27Obtic/CahiersObtic_2.pdf
  28. ^ http://janissaire.hautetfort.com/archive/2008/05/14/les-janissaires-1979-de-vincent-mansour-monteil.html
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m http://ovipot.hypotheses.org/1348
  30. ^ a b http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/cmr_0008-0160_1979_num_20_2_1359?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&
  31. ^ Rapport Minority Rights Group Bir eşitlik arayışı: Türkiye’de azınlıklar Uluslararası Azınlık Hakları Grubu 2007 Dilek Kurban
  32. ^ http://www.psakd.org/dunyada_turkiyede_nusayrilik1.html
  33. ^ http://books.google.fr/books?id=gZfK_OnlAiQC&pg=PA220&lpg=PA220&dq=diyanet+l%27etat+dans+l%27etat&source=bl&ots=hhLrlOBTHf&sig=pVrVaeBurlzNdwz0T1t0SEV8qGQ&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=RxhYUa6CJuW47Aac34HABA&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=diyanet%20l%27etat%20dans%20l%27etat&f=false
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/butce/2013/kanun_tasarisi.pdf
  35. ^ a b c "Turkey". International Religious Freedom Report 2007. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2008-08-19. 
  36. ^ a b http://hongkong.usconsulate.gov/uploads/images/7iuy2dQ0h_EA5rA3csHHyA/ci_rf_uscirfar2009.pdf
  37. ^ "The Patriarch Bartholomew". 60 Minutes. CBS News. 20 December 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2010. 
  38. ^ "Government Spokesman Criticizes Greek Patriarch Over Crucifixion Remarks". Turkishpress.com. 21 December 2009. Retrieved 17 August 2010. 
  39. ^ "Gül backs minister's criticism of Patriarch Bartholomew". Today's Zaman. 22 December 2009. Retrieved 17 August 2010. 
  40. ^ "Bartholomew crucified, Erdoğan suffers from Hellish torture!(1)". Today's Zaman. 25 December 2009. Retrieved 17 August 2010. 
  41. ^ "Greece, Turkey mark a fresh start aimed at eventual partnership". Today's Zaman. 17 May 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2010. 
  42. ^ "The Greek Orthodox Church In Turkey: A Victim Of Systematic Expropriation". United States Commission On Security And Cooperation In Europe. 16 March 2005. Retrieved 10 May 2010. 
  43. ^ Selcan Hacaoğlu (November 29, 2010). "Turkey gives orphanage to Ecumenical Patriarchate". The Washington Post. 
  44. ^ a b KONDA Research and Consultancy (2007-09-08). "Religion, Secularism and the Veil in daily life" (PDF). Milliyet. Archived from the original on 2009-03-25. Retrieved 2011-06-25. 
  45. ^ "Religion is very important". Global Attitudes Project. Pew Research Center. 2002-12-19. Retrieved 2002-12-19. 
  46. ^ "Special Eurobarometer, biotechnology, page 204" (PDF). Fieldwork: Jan-Feb 2010. 
Sovereign states
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External links [edit]

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