Repressed memory

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Repressed memory is a theoretical concept used to describe a significant memory, usually of a traumatic nature, that has become unavailable for recall; also called motivated forgetting in which a subject blocks out painful or traumatic times in one's life. This is not the same as amnesia, which is a term for any instance in which memories are either not stored in the first place (such as with traumatic head injuries when short term memory does not transfer to long term memory) or forgotten.[1]

The term is used to describe memories that have been dissociated from awareness as well as those that have been repressed without dissociation. Repressed memory syndrome, the clinical term used to describe repressed memories, is often compared to psychogenic amnesia, and some sources compare the two as equivalent.[2][3]

According to the theory's proponents, repressed memories may sometimes be recovered years or decades after the event, most often spontaneously, triggered by a particular smell, taste, or other identifier related to the lost memory, or via suggestion during psychotherapy.[4]

The existence of repressed memories is a controversial topic in psychology; some studies have concluded that it can occur in victims of trauma[5][6][7][8][9], while others dispute it.

According to the American Psychological Association, it is not currently possible to distinguish a true repressed memory from a false one without corroborating evidence.[10]

Contents

[edit] History

The concept was originated by Sigmund Freud in his 1896 essay Zur Ätiologie der Hysterie ("On the etiology of hysteria").[citation needed] Freud abandoned his theory between 1897 and 1905, replacing it during 1920-1923 with his impulse-based concept of Ego, super-ego, and id. Friedrich Nietzsche was the first to suggest an active, conscious thought management method in the second essay of his On the Genealogy of Morals as a necessary fundament of efficiency, responsibility, and maturity.

[edit] Research

Some research indicates that memories of child sexual abuse and other traumatic incidents can be forgotten.[11][12][13][14] Evidence of the spontaneous recovery of traumatic memories has been shown,[15][16][17] and recovered memories of traumatic childhood abuse have been corroborated.[18][19][20][14][21]

Van der Kolk and Fisler's research shows that traumatic memories are retrieved, at least at first, in the form of mental imprints that are dissociated. These imprints are of the affective and sensory elements of the traumatic experience. Clients have reported the slow emergence of a personal narrative that can be considered explicit (conscious) memory. The level of emotional significance of a memory correlates directly with the memory's veracity. Studies of subjective reports of memory show that memories of highly significant events are unusually accurate and stable over time. The imprints of traumatic experiences appear to be qualitatively different from those of nontraumatic events. Traumatic memories may be coded differently than ordinary event memories, possibly because of alterations in attentional focusing or the fact that extreme emotional arousal interferes with the memory functions of the hippocampus.[22]

Although the science of repressed memory is limited, a few studies have suggested that memories of trauma that are forgotten and later recalled have a similar accuracy rate as trauma memories that had not been forgotten.[2]

[edit] Theory

It has been speculated that repression may be one method used by individuals to cope with traumatic memories, by pushing them out of awareness[13] (perhaps as an adaptation via psychogenic amnesia) to allow a child to maintain attachment to a person on whom they are dependent for survival.[23] Researchers have proposed that repression can operate on a social level as well.[24]

[edit] Controversy

The existence of repressed memory recovery has not been completely accepted by mainstream psychology,[25][26][27][28] nor unequivocally proven to exist, and some experts in the field of human memory feel that no credible scientific support exists for the notions of repressed/recovered memories.[29] One research report states that a distinction should be made between spontaneously recovered memories and memories recovered during suggestions in therapy.[30]

[edit] Legal issues

Some criminal cases have been based on a witness' testimony of recovered repressed memories, often of alleged childhood sexual abuse. In some jurisdictions, the statute of limitations for child abuse cases has been extended to accommodate the phenomena of repressed memories as well as other factors. The repressed memory concept came into wider public awareness in the 1980s and 1990s followed by a reduction of public attention after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations.[31]

In a 1996 ruling, a US District Court allowed repressed memories entered into evidence in court cases.[32] Jennifer Freyd writes that Ross Cheit's case of suddenly remembered sexual abuse is one of the most well-documented cases available for the public to see. Cheit prevailed in two lawsuits, located five additional victims and tape-recorded a confession.[17]

[edit] Recovered memory therapy

Main article: Recovered memory therapy

Recovered memory therapy (RMT) is a term coined by affiliates of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation[33][34] referring to what they described as a range of psychotherapy methods based on recalling memories of abuse that had previously been forgotten by the patient.[35] The term is not listed in DSM-IV or used by mainstream formal psychotherapy modality.[33] Opponents of the therapy advance the hypothesis that therapy can create false memories through suggestion techniques; this hypothesis is controversial and has been neither proven nor disproven. Some research has shown evidence supporting the hypothesis,[36][37] and this evidence is questioned by some researchers.[38][33][39] Even when patients who decide their recovered memories are false retract their claims, they can suffer post-traumatic stress disorder due to the trauma of illusory memories.[40] The number of reported retractions is small when compared to the large number of actual child sexual abuse cases.[41] Some have suggested that a child may retract their story of abuse due to guilt, a feeling of obligation to protect their family, or may be reacting to the familial stress brought on by their allegations.[42]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ "Amnesia" entry - Encyclopedia of Psychology, published by the American Psychological Association. Online (licensed) at: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is_0000/ai_2699000016
  2. ^ a b Scheflin, A (1999-11-01). "Ground lost: The false memory/recovered memory therapy debate". Psychiatric Times 16 (11). http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p991137.html. 
  3. ^ Fink, P (2005). "Press Release by the Leadership Council: Recovered Memories: True or False?". The Leadership Council. http://www.leadershipcouncil.org/1/tm/pr.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. 
  4. ^ Albach, Francine; Peter Paul Moormann, Bob Bermond (December-1996). "Memory recovery of childhood sexual abuse". Dissociation Vol. 9, No. 4, p. 261-273. ISSN 0896-2863. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/1774. Retrieved on 2008-01-03. 
  5. ^ Widom, Cathy Spatz; Shepard, Robin L. (December 1996). "Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimization : Part 1. Childhood physical abuse". Psychological Assessment (Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association) 8 (4): 412–21. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.412. EJ542113. ISSN 1040-3590. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ542113&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ542113. Retrieved on 2007-12-18. 
  6. ^ Widom, Cathy Spatz; Morris, Suzanne (March 1997). "Accuracy of Adult Recollections of Childhood Victimization: Part 2. Childhood Sexual Abuse". Psychological Assessment (Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association) 9 (1): 34–46. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.1.34. EJ545434. ISSN 1040-3590. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ545434&searchtype=keyword&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b801126a6&accno=EJ545434&_nfls=false. Retrieved on 2007-12-18. 
  7. ^ Sheflin, Alan W; Brown, Daniel (1996). "Repressed Memory or Dissociative Amnesia: What the Science Says". Journal of Psychiatry & Law 24 (Summer): 143–88. ISSN 0093-1853. 
  8. ^ Julia M. Whealin, Ph.D. and Laurie Slone, Ph.D.. "Complex PTSD". National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. United States Department of Veteran Affairs. http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/fact_shts/fs_complex_ptsd.html?opm=1&rr=rr89&srt=d&echorr=true. 
  9. ^ Herman, Judith Lewis (1997). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence from domestic abuse to political terror. Basic Books. pp. 119–122. ISBN 0465087302. 
  10. ^ Questions and Answers about Memories of Childhood Abuse
  11. ^ Williams LM (1994). "Recall of childhood trauma: a prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse". J Consult Clin Psychol 62 (6): 1167–76. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.6.1167. PMID 7860814. 
  12. ^ Cheit, RE (2005-07-01). "The Archive: 101 Corroborated Cases of Recovered Memory". The Recovered Memory Project. http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Taubman_Center/Recovmem/. Retrieved on 2008-02-07. 
  13. ^ a b "Research on the Effect of Trauma on Memory". The Leadership Council. 2005. http://www.leadershipcouncil.org/1/tm/tm.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-07. 
  14. ^ a b Bowman, E.S. (1996). "Delayed memories of child abuse: Part I: An overview of research findings on forgetting, remembering, and corroborating trauma". Dissociation 9: 221–231. ; lay summary "Corroboration of child abuse memories". About.com. 2006-02-20. http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/abuse/a/cooroborate.htm. Retrieved on 2008-01-06. 
  15. ^ Chu, J; Frey L, Ganzel B, Matthews J (May 1999). "Memories of childhood abuse: dissociation, amnesia, and corroboration". American Journal of Psychiatry 156 (5): 749–55. PMID 10327909. 
  16. ^ Duggal, S.; Sroufe, L. A. (April 1998). "Recovered memory of childhood sexual trauma: A documented case from a longitudinal study". Journal of Traumatic Stress 11 (2): 301–321. doi:10.1023/A:1024403220769. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/jots/1998/00000011/00000002/00423218. Retrieved on 2007-12-31. 
  17. ^ a b Freyd, Jennifer J. (1996). Betrayal Trauma - The Logic of Forgetting Childhood Abuse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-06805-x. 
  18. ^ Cheit, Ross E. (1998). "Consider This, Skeptics of Recovered Memory". Ethics & Behavior 8 (2): 141–160. doi:10.1207/s15327019eb0802_4. http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327019eb0802_4?journalCode=eb. Retrieved on 2007-12-25. 
  19. ^ Corwin, D.; Olafson E. (1997). "Videotaped Discovery of a Reportedly Unrecallable Memory of Child Sexual Abuse: Comparison with a Childhood Interview Videotaped 11 Years Before". Child Maltreatment 2 (2): 91–112. doi:10.1177/1077559597002002001. http://cmx.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/2/2/91. Retrieved on 2008-01-09. 
  20. ^ Leadership Council on Child Abuse & Interpersonal Violence: Summary of Research Examining the Prevalence of Full or Partial Dissociative Amnesia for Traumatic Events
  21. ^ Hopper, Jim. "Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse Scientific Research & Scholarly Resources". http://www.jimhopper.com/memory. Retrieved on 2007-12-15. 
  22. ^ van der Kolk BA, Fisler R (1995). "Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: overview and exploratory study". J Trauma Stress 8 (4): 505–25. PMID 8564271. http://www.trauma-pages.com/a/vanderk2.php. Retrieved on 2008-03-22. 
  23. ^ Freyd, J. (1994). "Betrayal trauma: traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse" (PDF). Ethics & Behavior 4 (4): 307–330. doi:10.1207/s15327019eb0404_1. http://dynamic.uoregon.edu/~jjf/articles/freyd94.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-01-13. 
  24. ^ Freyd, Jennifer J. (2007). "Archiving Dissociation as a Precaution Against Dissociating Dissociation" (PDF). Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 8 (3). http://dynamic.uoregon.edu/~jjf/articles/freyd2007.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-12-29. 
  25. ^ McNally, R.J. (2004). "The Science and Folklore of Traumatic Amnesia". Clinical Psychology Science and Practice 11 (1): 29–33. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bph056. 
  26. ^ McNally RJ (2007). "Dispelling confusion about traumatic dissociative amnesia". Mayo Clin. Proc. 82 (9): 1083–90. doi:10.4065/82.9.1083. PMID 17803876. 
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  28. ^ McNally RJ (2005). "Debunking myths about trauma and memory". Can J Psychiatry 50 (13): 817–22. PMID 16483114. 
  29. ^ Amicus Curiae brief in Taus v. Loftus, (Superme Court of California 2006-02-21).
  30. ^ Geraerts, E.; Schooler, J.W.; Merckelbach, H.; Jelicic, M.; Hauer, B.J.A.; Ambadar, Z. (2007). "The Reality of Recovered Memories: Corroborating Continuous and Discontinuous Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse" (PDF). Psychological Science 18 (7): 564–568. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01940.x. http://www.personeel.unimaas.nl/e.geraerts/Geraerts%20et%20al_Psych%20Science%202007.pdf. 
  31. ^ Robbins Susan P., The Social and Cultural Context of Satanic Ritual Abuse Allegations, published in Institute for Psychological Therapies magazine, vol 10 1998.[1]
  32. ^ 923 Federal Supplement 286 (D. Mass. 1996); CIVIL ACTION NO.: 92-12139-EFH MEMORANDUM AND ORDER; May 8, 1996
  33. ^ a b c Whitfield, Charles L.; Joyanna L. Silberg, Paul Jay Fink (2001). Misinformation Concerning Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Survivors. Haworth Press. pp. 56. ISBN 0789019019. 
  34. ^ Underwager, Ralph; Hollida Wakefield (October 1994). Return of the Furies: An Investigation into Recovered Memory Therapy. Open Court Pub Co. pp. 360. ISBN 978-0812692716. 
  35. ^ Lief, Harold I (November 1999). "Patients Versus Therapists: Legal Actions Over Recovered Memory Therapy". Psychiatric Times XVI (11). http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p991136.html. 
  36. ^ Loftus, EF; Pickrell JE (1995). "The formation of false memories" (pdf). Psychiatric Annals 25: 720–725. http://users.ecs.soton.ac.uk/harnad/Papers/Py104/loftusmem1.pdf. 
  37. ^ Pezdek, K; Hodge, D. (July-August 1999). "Planting false childhood memories: The role of event plausibility" (pdf). Child Development 70 (4): 887–895. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00064. http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/bfaber/CSP502/2-Pezdek-1999.pdf. 
  38. ^ Hammond, D. Corydon; Brown, Daniel P.; Scheflin, Alan W. (1998). Memory, trauma treatment, and the law. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-70254-5. 
  39. ^ Brandon S, Boakes J, Glaser D, Green R (1998). "Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Implications for clinical practice". Br J Psychiatry 172: 296–307. doi:10.1192/bjp.172.4.296. PMID 9722329. 
  40. ^ Lambert, K; Lilienfeld SO (2007-10-01). "Brain Stains". Scientific American. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=4338D296-E7F2-99DF-3D7F5370B4FB5D10. Retrieved on 2008-01-25. 
  41. ^ Whitfield M.D., Charles L. (1995). Memory and Abuse - Remembering and Healing the Effects of Trauma. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc. pp. 375. ISBN 1-55874-320-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=z1LW3u1e04YC&dq=whitfield+memory+and+abuse&pg=PP1&ots=Q_GZ1Yy1iE&sig=ivzKYWTrLhVa3HODty7kwIuJp0Y&hl=en&prev=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=ISO-8859-1&q=Whitfield+Memory+and+Abuse&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail. 
  42. ^ Summit, R. (1983). "The child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome". Child Abuse & Neglect 7: 177–193. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(83)90070-4. 

[edit] External links

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