Resistant starch

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ambox scales.svg
 This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page. (October 2009)

Resistant starch (RS) is starch and starch degradation products that escape digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals.[1] Resistant starch is considered the third type of dietary fiber, as it can deliver some of the benefits of insoluble fiber and some of the benefits of soluble fiber.

Some carbohydrates, such as sugars and most starch, are rapidly digested and absorbed as glucose into the body through the small intestine and subsequently used for short-term energy needs or stored. Resistant starch, on the other hand, resists digestion and passes through to the large intestine where it acts like dietary fiber.

Resistant starch has been categorized into four types:

  • RS1 Physically inaccessible or digestible resistant starch, such as that found in seeds or legumes and unprocessed whole grains
  • RS2 Resistant starch that occurs in its natural granular form, such as uncooked potato, green banana flour and high amylose corn
  • RS3 Resistant starch that is formed when starch-containing foods are cooked and cooled such as in legumes,[2] bread, cornflakes and cooked-and-chilled potatoes or retrograded high amylose corn
  • RS4 Starches that have been chemically modified to resist digestion. This type of resistant starches can have a wide variety of structures and are not found in nature.

There is some discussion about resistant dextrins being described as "resistant starch". Resistant dextrins are not starches, and they can be soluble or insoluble. They might be described as "starch degradation products", which is literally included in the EURESTA definition, but their characteristics and performance are very different than insoluble resistant starches.

Contents

[edit] As functional fiber

Resistant starch is considered a functional fiber.[3][4] The U.S. Institute of Medicine has defined total fiber as equal to functional fiber plus dietary fiber,[5] and U.S. food labeling doesn't distinguish between them.[6]

Examples of naturally-occurring resistant starch[7]
Food Serving Size Resistant Starch
(grams)
Navy beans 1/2 cup cooked 9.8
Banana, raw 1 medium, peeled 4.7
Cold potato 1/2” diameter 3.2
Lentils 1/2 cup cooked 2.5
Cold pasta 1 cup 1.9
Pearl barley 1/2 cup cooked 1.6
Oatmeal 1 cup cooked 0.7
Wholegrain bread 2 slices 0.5

In 1971, Painter and Burkitt suggested[8] that a significant gap exists between the amount of dietary fiber urbanized people consume and the optimal amount of fiber for health and wellness, but some skepticism remains.[9][10] In 1982, Englyst et al.[11] gelatinized starch then post-processed it with both alpha-amylase and pullulanase in order to analyze it, found that some starch remained, and called it resistant starch.[12][13] In 1986, Berry formed[14] functional RS3[15] dietary fibers by a process of heating and cooling[16] a variety of starch sources, one of which was amylopectin pre-processed with the enzyme pullulanase. That source had the second highest alpha-amylase resistant starch level, while amylomaize or high-amylose starch had the highest.[17][18][19] In 2007, the Federal Register published a 2001 U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) Panel on the Definition of Dietary Fiber's response to a request from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The IOM Panel proposed two definitions: functional fiber as "isolated, nondigestible carbohydrates that have beneficial physiological effects in humans", and dietary fiber as "nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants." They also proposed that the prior classifications of soluble versus insoluble be phased out and replaced with viscous versus fermentable with respect to each specific fiber.[20]

Resistant starch assists in increasing total fiber consumption because it can be incorporated into foods without having as negative an impact on the taste or texture as would classic dietary-fiber sources.[4] The National Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Medicine within the United States has recommended a daily fiber intake of 38 grams for adult men and 25 grams for adult women. Many countries around the world recommend 25-30 grams for their populations.

[edit] Health benefits

Public health authorities and food organizations such as the Food and Agricultural Organization, the World Health Organization,[21] the British Nutrition Foundation[13] and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences[22] recognize resistant starch as a beneficial carbohydrate. The WIC program (Women, Infants, Children) includes many foods high in resistant starch. The Joint Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization Expert Consultation on Human Nutrition stated, "One of the major developments in our understanding of the importance of carbohydrates for health in the past twenty years has been the discovery of resistant starch.”[23]

Research of natural resistant starches from high amylose corn indicates benefits in intestinal/colonic health as well as metabolic benefits in glycemic management.[24][25][26][27][28] Studies have shown that different classes of resistant starch are digested and/or fermented differently and thus must be considered individually.[29][30][31][32]

[edit] Weight management

Consumption of foods containing natural resistant starch seems to positively affect weight management in four ways.

  • Fiber fortification: When added to foods such as bread, biscuits, sweet goods, pasta, nutritional bars and cereal, resistant starch can increase fiber content without affecting taste or texture. In 2003, the World Health Organization concluded that dietary fiber was the only dietary component that had convincing evidence showing a protective effect against weight gain and obesity.[33][dubious – discuss] While the exact mechanisms of fiber protecting against weight gain are still under investigation, its ability to increase satiety and decrease subsequent hunger, along with altering the secretion of hormones related to food digestion, are considered likely mechanisms.[34]
  • Calorie reduction: Resistant starch lowers the caloric content of foods when it is used to replace flour or other rapidly digested carbohydrates. Natural resistant starch delivers between 2-3 kilocalories/gram (8-12 kilojoules/gram) versus 4 kilocalories/gram (16 kilojoules/gram).[35][36] Consequently, resistant starch is a valuable tool for formulators of reduced-calorie foods.
  • Satiety: Multiple recent studies have shown that naturally occurring resistant starch increases satiety and reduces food intake in the short term (within a few hours) and longer-term (for 20–24 hours).[37][38][39][40]
  • Lipid oxidation: Resistant starch may help burn fat and may lead to lower fat accumulation. A recent clinical trial with high amylose corn resistant starch showed that it increased fat oxidation after a meal. These findings suggest a possible metabolic effect of resistant starch that may affect body weight.[41]

[edit] Blood sugar response/glycemic management

Studies suggest continual exposure to elevated levels of insulin as a result of a high glycemic diet may contribute to reduced sensitivity by cells to the insulin (insulin resistance) and a higher risk of diabetes. As insulin resistance increases, the body produces more insulin to maintain adequate blood sugar control. With rising resistance, even more insulin is required, and the body may not be able to keep up or the pancreatic cells producing insulin may stop functioning.

Consumption of natural resistant starch by humans has been shown to result in decreased glycemic response in healthy individuals,[42] decreased glycemic response in diabetics,[43] increased insulin sensitivity in healthy individuals,[24][25] individuals with Type II diabetes[26] as well as insulin resistant individuals.[27] One additional study found that 12 grams of ingredients containing resistant starch did not improve insulin sensitivity in African American adults at risk for diabetes.[28]

[edit] Digestive/colonic health

Natural resistant starch helps maintain a healthy colon and a healthy digestive system via several mechanisms.

  • It encourages the growth of healthy bacteria in the bowel and discourages the growth of potentially harmful bacteria, and, therefore, is called “prebiotic fiber.” The fermentation of natural resistant starch reduces intestinal pH and the production of potentially harmful secondary bile acids, ammonia and phenols.[44]
  • It is predicted to help maintain "regularity” with a mild laxative effect due to increased microbial activity in the large intestine, but as of 2001, evidence for this effect is sparse.[45]
  • It helps to keep colon tissue healthy by producing protective compounds called short-chain fatty acids. One of these, called butyrate, is particularly important for colon health because it is the primary energy source for colonic cells and has anti-carcinogenic as well as anti-inflammatory properties[46] that are important for keeping colon cells healthy.[47][48] Published research has shown that butyrate inhibits the growth and proliferation of tumor cell lines in vitro, induces differentiation of tumor cells, producing a phenotype similar to that of the normal mature cell,[49] and induces apoptosis or programmed cell death of human colorectal cancer cells.[50][51]
  • Resistant starch contributes to oral rehydration solutions for the treatment of diarrhea.[52][53]

[edit] Gluten free

Resistant starch can act as a replacement for wheat products in foods that are required to be gluten-free.[citation needed]

[edit] References

  1. ^ Asp NG. (1992). "Resistant starch. Proceedings from the second plenary meeting of EURESTA: European FLAIR Concerted Action No. 11 on physiological implications of the consumption of resistant starch in man. Crete, 29 May-2 June 1991". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46 (Suppl 2): S1–148. PMID 1425538. 
  2. ^ Yadav BS, Sharma A, Yadav RB (2009). "Studies on effect of multiple heating/cooling cycles on the resistant starch formation in cereals, legumes and tubers". Int J Food Sci Nutr 60 Suppl 4: 258–72. doi:10.1080/09637480902970975. PMID 19562607. 
  3. ^ Jo Ann Tatum Hattner; Susan Anderes (2009). Gut Insight: probiotics and prebiotics for digestive health and well-being. p. 45. ISBN 9780615285245. http://books.google.com/books?id=pxYXlrY9qFAC&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 16. 
  4. ^ a b Lloyd W. Rooney; Lusas, Edmund W. (2001). Snack Foods Processing. Boca Raton: CRC. p. 134. ISBN 1-56676-932-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=W_5wlzckPkMC&pg=PA134#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 16. 
  5. ^ Jane Higdon (2007). An evidence-based approach to dietary phytochemicals. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers. p. 102. ISBN 3-13-141841-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=p4fJeDw6hsAC&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 16. 
  6. ^ Bier, Dennis M.; Alpers, David H.; Stenson, William F.; Taylor, Beth Weir (2008). Manual of nutritional therapeutics. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 419. ISBN 0-7817-6841-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=b0iiYNob_WwC&pg=PA419#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 16. 
  7. ^ National Starch Food Innovation database of resistant starch.
  8. ^ Painter NS, Burkitt DP (May 1971). "Diverticular disease of the colon: a deficiency disease of Western civilization". Br Med J 2 (5759): 450–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5759.450. PMC 1796198. PMID 4930390. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1796198. 
  9. ^ Floch MH, White JA (May 2006). "Management of diverticular disease is changing". World J. Gastroenterol. 12 (20): 3225–8. PMID 16718843. http://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v12/i20/3225.htm. Retrieved 2011 Mar 13. 
  10. ^ Stollman N, Raskin JB (February 2004). "Diverticular disease of the colon". Lancet 363 (9409): 631–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15597-9. PMID 14987890. 
  11. ^ H. Englyst, H. S. Wiggins and J. H. Cummings (1982) "Determination of the non-starch polysaccharides in plant foods by gas-liquid chromatography of constituent sugars as alditol acetates" Analyst, 107, 307-318 DOI: 10.1039/AN9820700307
  12. ^ Hedley, C. L. (2001). Carbohydrates in grain legume seeds: improving nutritional quality and agronomic characteristics. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. p. 47. ISBN 0-85199-467-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=9ljO7LtX72AC&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 25. 
  13. ^ a b Nugent, A.P., Health properties of resistant starch, British Nutrition Foundation. Nutrition Bulletin, 2005;30(1):27-54.
  14. ^ Berry, CS. (Oct 1986) "Resistant starch: Formation and measurement of starch that survives exhaustive digestion with amylolytic enzymes during the determination of dietary fibre" Journal of Cereal Science, Volume 4, Issue 4, Pages 301-314, ISSN 0733-5210, DOI: 10.1016/S0733-5210(86)80034-0.
  15. ^ Claudio P. Ribeiro; Passos, Maria Helena (2009). Innovation in Food Engineering: New Techniques and Products (Contemporary Food Engineering). Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 646. ISBN 1-4200-8606-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=85yUennC-pUC&pg=PA646#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 17. 
  16. ^ Sievert D, Pomeranz Y (Jul-Aug 1989). "Enzyme-resistant starch. I. Characterization and evaluation by enzymatic, thermoanalytical, and microscopic methods" (PDF). Cereal chemistry 66(4): 342–347. ISSN 0009-0352. http://www.aaccnet.org/cerealchemistry/backissues/1989/66_342.pdf. 
  17. ^ Chapman, C. Stuart; Henry, C. E. (2002). The nutrition handbook for food processors. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 307. ISBN 1-85573-464-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=5l5Et4xLguAC&pg=PA307#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 17. 
  18. ^ Johan B Ubbink; Stefan Kasapis; Ian T. Norton (2009). Modern Biopolymer Science: Bridging the Divide between Fundamental Treatise and Industrial Application. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 462–478. ISBN 0-12-374195-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=vHXw8vs7scYC&pg=PA462#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 17. 
  19. ^ Wiseman, J. D. A.; Varley, M. C. (2001). The Weaner Pig: Nutrition and Management. Oxon: CAB International. ISBN 0-85199-532-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=G5GhQJkL3OsC&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011 Mar 17. 
  20. ^ "Federal Register | Food Labeling: Revision of Reference Values and Mandatory Nutrients". 11/2/2007. http://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2007/11/02/07-5440/food-labeling-revision-of-reference-values-and-mandatory-nutrients. Retrieved 2011 Mar 18. 
  21. ^ Carbohydrates in Human Nutrition, Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation in Human Nutrition, April 1997
  22. ^ “Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids (Macronutrients)” The Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, September 5, 2002.
  23. ^ de Haen, H. (FAO Assistant Director-General, Economic & Social Dept), Carbohydrates in Human Nutrition, FAO Food & Nutrition Paper – 66. A Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Human Nutrition, Rome, April 14–18, 1997.
  24. ^ a b Robertson MD, Currie JM, Morgan LM, Jewell DP, Frayn KN (May 2003). "Prior short-term consumption of resistant starch enhances postprandial insulin sensitivity in healthy subjects". Diabetologia 46 (5): 659–65. doi:10.1007/s00125-003-1081-0. PMID 12712245. 
  25. ^ a b Robertson MD, Bickerton AS, Dennis AL, Vidal H, Frayn KN (September 2005). "Insulin-sensitizing effects of dietary resistant starch and effects on skeletal muscle and adipose tissue metabolism". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 82 (3): 559–67. PMID 16155268. 
  26. ^ a b Zhang WQ, Wang HW, Zhang YM, Yang YX (March 2007). "[Effects of resistant starch on insulin resistance of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients]" (in Chinese). Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 41 (2): 101–4. PMID 17605234. 
  27. ^ a b Johnston KL, Thomas EL, Bell JD, Frost GS, Robertson MD (April 2010). "Resistant starch improves insulin sensitivity in metabolic syndrome". Diabet. Med. 27 (4): 391–7. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2010.02923.x. PMID 20536509. 
  28. ^ a b Penn-Marshall M, Holtzman GI, Holtzman GI, Barbeau WE (August 2010). "African americans may have to consume more than 12 grams a day of resistant starch to lower their risk for type 2 diabetes". J Med Food 13 (4): 999–1004. doi:10.1089/jmf.2009.0195. PMID 20482275. 
  29. ^ T.C. Rideout, Q. Liu, P. Wood, M.Z. Fan. (2008) Nutrient utilization and intestinal fermentation are differentially affected by the consumption of resistant starch varieties and conventional fibres in pigs. British Journal of Nutrition 99(5):984-92 PubMed 18005479
  30. ^ C. Fassler, E. Arrigoni, K. Venema, V. Hafner, F. Brouns, R. Amado. (2006) Digestibility of resistant starch containing preparations using two in vitro models. Eur J Nutr 45(8), 445-453. PubMed 17036261
  31. ^ C. Fassler, E. Arrigoni, K. Venema, V. Hafner, F. Brouns, R. Amado. (2006) In vitro fermentability of differently digested resistant starch preparations. Mol Nutr Food Res 50(12), 1220-1228. PubMed 17103375
  32. ^ L.R. Ferguson, C. Tasman-Jones, H. Englyst, P.J. Harris. (2000) Comparative effects of three resistant starch preparations on transit time and short-chain fatty acid production in rats. Nutr Cancer 36:230 PubMed 10890035
  33. ^ World Health Organization, Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation “Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases” 2003, WHO Technical Report Series 916. [1]
  34. ^ J.L. Slavin. Dietary fiber and body weight. Nutrition 2005; Mar;21(3):411-8. PubMed 15797686
  35. ^ K.M. Behall, J.C. Howe. Resistant starch as energy. The Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1996;15(3):248-54. PubMed 8935440
  36. ^ L. Aust, G. Dongowski, U. Frenz, A. Taufel, R. Noack Estimation of available energy of dietary fibres by indirect calorimetry in rats. European Journal of Nutrition 2001;40(1):23-9. PubMed 11315502
  37. ^ Anderson GH, Cho CE, Akhavan T, Mollard RC, Luhovyy BL, Finocchiaro ET. Relation between estimates of cornstarch digestibility by the Englyst in vitro method and glycemic response, subjective appetite, and short-term food intake in young men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (April, 2010) 91(4):932-939. PubMed 20164321
  38. ^ Bodinham CL, Frost GS, Robertson MD. Acute ingestion of resistant starch reduces food intake in healthy adults. British Journal of Nutrition. (Mar 2010) 103(6):917-22. PubMed 19857367
  39. ^ Willis HJ, Eldridge AL, Beiseigel J, Thomas W, Slavin JL. Greater satiety response with resistant starch and corn bran in human subjects. Nutrition Research. February 2009; 29(2):100-105. PubMed 19285600
  40. ^ Nilsson A.C., Ostman E.M., Holst J.J., Bjorck I.M.E. (2008) Including indigestible carbohydrates in the evening meal of healthy subjects improves glucose tolerance, lowers inflammatory markers, and increases satiety after a subsequent standardized breakfast. Journal of Nutrition 138:732-739. PubMed 18356328
  41. ^ J.A. Higgins, D.R. Higbee, W.T. Donahoo, I.L. Brown, M.L. Bell, D.H. Bessesen. Resistant starch consumption promotes lipid oxidation. Nutrition & Metabolism 2004, 1:8. PubMed 15507129
  42. ^ R.J. Vonk, R.E. Hagedoorn, R. de Graaff, H. Elzinga, S. Tabak, Y-X Yang, and F. Stellaard. Digestion of so-called resistant starch sources in the human small intestine. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:432-438. PubMed 10919938
  43. ^ R. Giacco, G. Clemente, F. Brighenti, M. Mancini, A.D’Avanzo, S. Coppola, G. Ruffa, G. La sorella, A.M. Rivieccio, a.A. Rivellese, G. Riccardi. Metabolic effects of resistant starch in patients with Type 2 diabetes. Diab Nutr Metab. 1998:11:330-335.
  44. ^ R.H. Whitehead, G.P. Young, P.S. Bhathal. Effects of short chain fatty acids on a new human carcinoma cell line, (LIM1215) Gut 1986; 27, 1457-63. PubMed 3804021
  45. ^ J.H. Cummings, G.T. Macfarlane, H.N. Englyst. Prebiotic digestion and fermentation. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73(2 suppl): 415S-20S. PubMed 11157351
  46. ^ Greer JB, O'Keefe SJ (2011). "Microbial induction of immunity, inflammation, and cancer". Front Physiol 1: 168. doi:10.3389/fphys.2010.00168. PMC 3059938. PMID 21423403. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3059938. 
  47. ^ W. Scheppach. Effects of short chain fatty acids on gut morphology and function. Gut 1994;35(1Suppl):S35-8. PubMed 8125387
  48. ^ A. Andoh, T. Tsujikawa, Y. Fujiyama. Role of dietary fiber and short-chain fatty acids in the colon. Current Pharmaceutical Design 2003;9(4):347-58. PubMed 12570825
  49. ^ A. Toscani, D.R. Soprano, K.J. Soprano. Molecular analysis of sodium butyrate-induced growth arrest. Oncogene Res. 1988;3(3):223-38. PubMed 3144695
  50. ^ Wong JM, de Souza R, Kendall CW, Emam A, Jenkins DJ. Colonic health: fermentation and short chain fatty acids. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2006 Mar;40(3):235-43.PubMed 16633129
  51. ^ Scharlau D, Borowicki A, Habermann N, Hofmann T, Klenow S, Miene C, Munjal U, Stein K, Glei M. Mechanisms of primary cancer prevention by butyrate and other products formed during gut flora-mediated fermentation of dietary fibre. Mutat Res. 2009 Jul-Aug;682(1):39-53.PubMed 19383551
  52. ^ P. Raghupathy, B.S. Ramakrishna, S.P. Oommen, M.S. Ahmed, G.Priyaa, J. Dziura, G.P. Young, H.J. Binder. Amylase-resistant starch as adjunct to oral rehydration therapy in children with diarrhea. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 2006;42:362-368. PubMed 16641573
  53. ^ B.S. Ramakrishna, S. Venkataraman, P. Srinivasan, P. Dash, G.P. Young, H.J. Binder. Amylase-resistant starch plus oral rehydration solution for cholera. The New England Journal of Medicine 2000;342:308-313. PubMed 10655529

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Resistant_starch&oldid=471426972"
Personal tools
Namespaces
Variants
Actions
Navigation
Interaction
Toolbox
Print/export
Languages