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Spanish missions within the boundaries of what is now the U.S. state of Texas

The Spanish Missions in Texas comprise the many Catholic outposts established in New Spain by Dominican, Jesuit, and Franciscan orders to spread their doctrine among Native Americans and to give Spain a toehold in the frontier land. The missions introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables, and industry into the Texas area. In addition to the presidio (fortified church) and pueblo (town), the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. In all, twenty-six missions were maintained for different lengths of time within the future boundaries of the state of Texas.

Since 1493, Spain had maintained missions throughout New Spain (Mexico and portions of what today are the southwestern United States) to facilitate colonization. The eastern Tejas missions were a direct response to fear of French encroachment when the remains of La Salle's Fort Saint Louis were discovered near Matagorda Bay in 1689, and a response to the first permanent French outposts along the Gulf Coast ten years later.

Following government policy, Franciscan missionaries sought to make life within mission communities closely resemble that of Spanish villages and Spanish culture. To become Spanish citizens and "productive" inhabitants, Native Americans learned vocational skills, such as plows, farm implements, and gear for horses, oxen, and mules fell into disrepair, blacksmithing skills soon became indispensable. Weaving skills were needed to help clothe the inhabitants. As buildings became more elaborate, mission occupants learned masonry and carpentry under the direction of craftsmen contracted by the missionaries.

In the closely supervised setting of the mission the Native Americans were expected to mature in Christianity and Spanish political and economic practices until they would no longer require special mission status. Then their communities could be incorporated as such into ordinary colonial society. This transition from official mission status to ordinary Spanish society, when it occurred in an official manner, was called "secularization." In this official transaction, the mission's communal properties were privatized, the direction of civil life became a purely secular affair, and the direction of church life was transferred from the missionary religious orders to the Catholic diocesan church. Although colonial law specified no precise time for this transition to take effect, increasing pressure for the secularization of most missions developed in the last decades of the 18th century.

This mission system was developed in response to the often very detrimental results of leaving the Hispanic control of relations with Native Americans on the expanding frontier to overly enterprising civilians and soldiers. This had resulted too often in the abuse and even enslavement of the Indians and a heightening of antagonism.

In the end, the mission system was not politically strong enough to protect the Native Americans against the growing power of ranchers and other business interests that sought control over mission lands and the manpower represented by the Native Americans. In the first few years of the new Republic of Mexico—between 1824 and 1830—all the missions still operating in Texas were officially secularized, with the sole exception of those in the El Paso district, which were turned over to diocesan pastors only in 1852.

Missions

[edit]
Name Image Location Established Notes References
Corpus Christi de (San Antonio de) la Isleta/Ysleta (Sur)
31.69101, -106.32739 1682 The first mission in Texas. Flooding destroyed the mission in both 1742 and 1829. The present church was constructed in 1851 on higher ground.

In 1881, the Jesuits took control and renamed it Mission de Nuestra Señora del Monte Carmelo. In 1980, the name was changed to Mission San Antonio de los Tiguas. The church is still in use today.

[1][2][3][4]
Nuestra Señora de la Limpia Concepción de Los Piros/del Pueblo de/del Socorro (del Sur)
31.65933, -106.30347 1682 The present mission church at Socorro was built after the 1829 flood, around 1840. [5][6][3][4]
San Antonio de Senecú/Senecú del Sur 1682 Established in the spring of 1682 after the Pueblo Revolt. In 1683 Senecú may have been moved. In 1949 a community called Senecú was located in Mexico. [7][3]
(La) Navidad de las Cruces December 29, 1683 The Mendoza-Lopez expedition party camped at a village. They named it Navidad de las Cruces and founded a mission. [4][3]
El Apostle Santiago Near Presidio January 1, 1684 The Mendoza-Lopez expedition, after establishing La Navidad de las Cruces, entered another village. They named it El Apostle Santiago and founded a mission. [8][3]
San Clemente On the San Saba River, west of Menard March 16, 1684 It was a temporary mission established by Juan Domínguez de Mendoza. It lasted until May 1, 1684. [9][3][8]
San Francisco de los Tejas Near Weches 1690 Abandoned in 1693 due to local resistance, disease, and resource challenges. It was re-established as the missions Nuestro Padre San Francisco de los Tejas, San Francisco de los Neches, and finally San Francisco de la Espada. [10][8][3]
(El) Santísimo Nombre de María Near Alto September 1690 The mission consisted of a straw chapel and a house for the priest. It was destroyed by a flood in 1692. [11][12][3][13]
Señor San José Near Presidio 1715 Driven out of the mission by natives in 1726. After this, the mission was only run occasionally. [12]
San Antonio de Padua Near Presidio 1715 Located southeast of Señor San José. It was renamed as San Antonio de Los Puliques and may have at one point been located near Redford. [12][14]
San Cristóbal Near Presidio 1715 Active until 1726. After this, the mission was only run occasionally. In operation until at least 1760 when Presidio del Norte de la Junta de Los Rios was founded. [14]
Mission of the Cibolas Shafter 1715 Located 24 miles northwest of Presidio. [14]
Mission at Redford Redford [14]
San Francisco de los Julimes [15]
Nuestro Padre San Francisco de los Tejas Near the west bank of the Neches River July 3, 1716 Abandoned in 1719. Re-established and moved in 1721 as San Francisco de los Neches. [16][17][18]
Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de los Hainai July 7, 1716 This mission was originally established on the Angelina River in 1716. It served the Hainai tribe. It was closed because of the French threat and reopened in 1721. In 1730 it was moved to the Colorado River near Zilker Park with missions San Francisco de los Tejas and San José de los Nazonis. It moved to San Antonio in 1731, where it was renamed Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de Acuña. [19][20] [18]
Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Nacogdoches Nacogdoches July 9, 1716 Established by the Domingo Ramón-St. Denis expedition to serve the Nacogdoche tribe. It closed several years later because of threats from French Louisiana but reopened in 1721. The mission continued until 1773, when the Spanish government ordered all of East Texas to be abandoned.

In 1779, Antonio Gil Y'Barbo led a group of settlers who had been removed from Los Adaes to the area to settle in the empty mission buildings. This began the town of Nacogdoches, Texas.

[21][20][22][23][18]
San José de los Nazonis Near Cushing July 11, 1716 Abandoned in 1719 after the French took the presidio at Los Adaes and reactivated in 1721. In 1730 it was moved to the Colorado River near Zilker Park with missions San Francisco de los Tejas and Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de los Hainai.

The mission is usually believed to have moved in 1731 to become Mission San Juan Capistrano and renamed so as not to cause confusion with Mission San José y San Miguel de Aguayo.

[24][15][20]
Nuestra Señora (de los) Dolores de los Ais San Augustine 1716 Re-established in 1721 on Ayish Bayou. Missionaries continued their work until 1773 when the East Texas missions were once again closed. Archeologists confirmed the location of the mission in the late 1970s.

Since July 1, 2016, the Texas Historical Commission has operated the site as Mission Dolores State Historic Site.

[25][26][18]
San Antonio de Valero
29.42573, -98.48622 May 1, 1718 The mission was first located west of San Pedro Springs, moving several times before finally founding the mission above a bend in the San Antonio River for easier defense. The mission served the Coahuiltecan until 1793.

It was the site of the Battle of the Alamo and later stored U.S. Army supplies in the Mexican–American War.

[27][28][29][30][31][32]
San José y San Miguel de Aguayo
29.36238, -98.47985 February 23, 1720 Shortly after its founding, Mission San Antonio de Valero became overcrowded with refugees from the closed East Texas missions, so this mission was established. Nicknamed the "Queen of the Missions", it served the Coahuiltecan.

A new church, which still stands, was constructed in 1768 from local limestone. Mission activities officially ended in 1824.

[33][34][35][36][32]

Mission San Francisco de la Espada

[edit]
Main article: Mission San Francisco de la Espada
Mission San Francisco de la Espada

The first mission established within the boundaries of Spanish Texas was San Francisco de la Espada. In 1689, Spanish authorities found the remnants of a French settlement, Fort Saint Louis.[37]

During their expedition, the Spanish met representatives of the Caddo people, who lived between the Trinity and the Red Rivers. The Caddo expressed interest in learning about Christianity,[38] and the following year Alonso De León led an expedition to establish a mission in East Texas. It was completed near the Hasinai village of Nabedaches in late May, and its first mass was conducted on June 1, 1690.[39][40]

Mission Espada's aqueduct

In its first two years of existence, the mission faced much hardship, as floodwaters and then drought destroyed their crops. After an epidemic killed half of the local population, the Hasinai became convinced that the missionaries had caused the deaths.[41] Fearing an attack, on October 25, 1693, the missionaries buried the mission bell, set the building ablaze, and retreated to Mexico.[42]

The mission was reestablished on July 3, 1716, as Nuestro Padre San Francisco de los Tejas.[16] In 1721, it was renamed Mission San Francisco de los Neches. It was moved in 1731 to San Antonio where it was named Mission San Francisco de la Espada. The surviving structure is now part of San Antonio Missions National Historical Park operated by the National Park Service. A commemorative representation of Mission San Francisco de los Tejas, is located in Weches at Mission Tejas State Park.

Mission San Juan Capistrano

[edit]
Main article: Mission San Juan Capistrano (Texas)
Mission San Juan Capistrano

Located 3 miles (5 km) south of Mission San José, San Juan Capistrano served Coahuiltecan natives. It was the most distant of the missions from the presidio at Bexar and was often raided by Apaches.[43]

By 1762, the mission consisted of a stone chapel with stone rooms for the priests and the soldiers who lived at the mission. Rooms made of adobe were built along the walls to house the 200 resident Native American peoples.[43] The mission was secularized in 1794, with the property divided among the remaining mission Indians. A priest continued to hold church services there, but other mission activities ended.[44] The church has been restored and is still an active parish.[44]

Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de Acuña

[edit]
The front of Mission Concepción
Main article: Mission Concepción

The name was changed because the mission no longer served the Ainais tribe, and its new name honored the current viceroy of Mexico.[45]

The mission inherited the lands of the closed Mission San Francisco Xavier de Najera 3 miles (5 km) south of San Antonio de Valero. Most of the Native Americans at the mission were Coahuiltecans who disliked the hard work of mission life. The Native Americans often ran away and were brought back forcibly by soldiers or priests.[45]

The current church building was completed in 1755 and is the oldest unrestored stone church in the United States. It is built in the shape of a cross, with walls that are 45 inches (1.1 m) thick. The mission was closed in 1794, with the property divided among the resident Native Americans, all of whom has left by 1800.[46] For a time, the buildings were used as a cattle barn, but in 1855 the land and church were given to the Brothers of Mary, who cleaned it and began conducting services again. It is now open to the public for prayer, and is part of the National Park Service.[43]

Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe

[edit]

Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe was established in 1756 in central Texas near present-day New Braunfels, Texas, to serve the local Waco and Tonkawa tribes congregating near the headwaters of the Comal river. It was closed in 1758 because of Comanche depredations and was never protected by a complementing presidio garrison.[47]

Mission Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de los Ais

[edit]

Mission Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de los Ais was originally established in 1717 in the area of Ayish Bayou (modern San Augustine, Texas) by Father Antonio Margil de Jesus. The mission was built to convert the local Ais Native Americans. Following the Chicken War in 1719, Spanish officials closed the East Texas missions and Father Margil and others were relocated to San Antonio. During the next year, Father Margil founded Mission San José (Texas). Mission Dolores was reestablished in 1721. Missionaries continued their work until 1773 when the East Texas missions were once again closed.

Archeologists confirmed the location of the mission in the late 1970s. It is one of three archeologically confirmed mission locations in East Texas and the only site open to the public. The City of San Augustine constructed a museum, campground and archeology lab in 2000. Since July 1, 2016, the Texas Historical Commission has operated the site as Mission Dolores State Historic Site.

Mission San Miguel de Linares de los Adaes

[edit]
Main article: Spanish missions in Louisiana

Mission San Miguel de Linares de los Adaes was the fifth mission established in East Texas in 1716–1717. The mission was to serve the Native American village of Adaes just 20 miles (32 km) west of the French fort at Natchitoches, Louisiana. At that time, the Spanish claimed the Red River as the eastern boundary of Texas, so the mission was considered part of Spanish Texas, despite being in what is now considered Louisiana.[22]

The mission was attacked by French soldiers in 1719 and was closed. Three years later, the Marquis de San Miguel de Aguayo reopened the mission, but at a site closer to the Presidio of Los Adaes. The mission remained open until 1773.[22]

Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga

[edit]
Main article: Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga
Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga was established in 1749, and referred to as "Mission La Bahia"
  • Established in 1722 Matagorda Bay (whence the name "La Bahia" The Bay) among the Karankawa Indians
  • Moved in 1726 near Victoria
  • Moved in 1749 to La Bahia (now Goliad, Texas)
  • The mission became the first large cattle ranch in Texas, with near 40,000 free roaming cattle at the height of production in about 1778. The large herds of longhorns and mustangs were cared for by the vaquero Indians from the mission. They also grew large crops of grain, fruit and vegetables to support the residents and trade with others. Cattle and livestock were also driven and traded with the other missions in Texas and Louisiana.
  • Final official secularization in February 1830
  • Restored from ruins by the Civilian Conservation Corps and Works Progress Administration in the 1930s
  • Currently a state historical park operated by the State of Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

Mission San Francisco Xavier de Nájera

[edit]

Mission San Francisco Xavier de Nájera was established in 1722 in San Antonio, as a result of a promise made by the Marquis de San Miguel de Aguayo, the governor of Spanish Texas. The previous year, Aguayo had asked the El Cuilón (also known as Juan Rodriguez) the chief of the Ervipiame and influential among many of the other tribes of Rancheria Grande natives, such as the Yojuanes and the Mayeye to guide him to East Texas to reopen the missions there;[48] in return, Aguayo promised to open a mission along the San Antonio River for the chief's tribe. The new mission was established 3 miles (5 km) south of San Antonio de Valero and was initially populated by fifty families under the leadership of El Cuilón.[49][50] The families did not stay long, and by 1726 the mission closed. Its lands were later given to Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de Acuña.[45]

Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá

[edit]
Main article: Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá

Mission Nuestra Señora del Rosario

[edit]
Main article: Mission Nuestra Señora del Rosario
  • Established 1754 4 miles west of La Bahia to serve various Karankawan tribes.
  • The mission developed a vast ranching system during its existence.
  • In 1781 the livestock were transferred to Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga.
  • Rosario was formally combined with Mission Nuestra Señora del Refugio on February 7, 1807.
  • Rosario was not secularized until 1828, with the order officially executed in 1831.
  • Currently the ruins are an archaeological site designated as Mission Rosario State Historic Site and controlled by the State of Texas Parks and Wildlife Department as part of Goliad State Park and Historic Site.[51]

Mission San Francisco Xavier de los Dolores

[edit]

Mission Nuestra Señora de la Luz

[edit]
  • Established 1756
  • Located near the mouth of the Trinity River north of Wallisville in Chambers County
  • Destroyed by the Karankawa natives and relocated farther North. Sickness and Indian attacks forced the mission to relocate farther north, on the Trinity River 40 miles south of Dallas.
  • This mission then thrived in the cattle and agriculture business. It was the 27th mission in Texas. Spain declined in influence in Texas and Mexico took over this mission. The Mexican Roman Catholic diocese of Guanajuato, Mexico took over the mission operations in Texas with a few exceptions. The Mission was isolated from Mexico and began to do trade with the many different groups of Indians, French and Americans. The Fathers of this mission gave the name "River of the Most Holy Trinity" or "Río de la Santísma Trinidad" to the Trinity river.

Mission Nuestra Señora del Refugio

[edit]
  • Established February 4, 1793, in East Texas
  • Moved in June, 1794 Mosquitos Creek
  • Moved in January, 1795 to Refugio
  • On January 7, 1830, the official secularization order was finally executed and Refugio was abandoned.
  • Materials from ruins probably used to build new structures in the early 19th century. The site is presently owned by Our Lady of Refuge Catholic Church.

Mission San Juan Bautista

[edit]
  • Established in 1700-1702
  • Site now in Guerrero, Coahuila, Mexico.
  • Coahuiltecan Indians (Ocán, Pacuache, and Pacal) gathered at this site
  • 3rd mission of the San Juan Bautista missions
  • Also site of a Presidio

Mission Santa María de las Caldas

[edit]
  • Established in 1730
  • The Suma people gathered at this site
  • Located at Socorro
  • Closed in 1749[52]

Mission San Francisco Xavier de Horcasitas

[edit]
  • Established in 1745
  • Founded by the College of Santa Cruz de Querétaro
  • Yojuane, Mayeye, Ervipiame, Hasinia, Top, and Nabedache gathered at this site
  • Located 5 mi.from Rockdale in Milam County
  • First of 3 San Xavier missions
  • A presidio (Spanish military outpost) est. here in 1751
  • Abandoned in 1755

Mission San Ildefonso

[edit]
  • Established in 1746 near the mouth of Brushy Creek
  • Founded by the College of Santa Cruz de Querétaro
  • Located 5 mi.from Rockdale in Milam County
  • Akokisa (Orocquisa), Bidai, and Deadose Indians gathered at this site
  • Second of 3 San Xavier missions
  • Abandoned in 1755

Mission Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria del Cañón

[edit]
Historic marker for Mission San Lorenzo de la Santa Cruz
  • Established circa 1749 on the south bank of the San Gabriel River
  • Founded by the College of Santa Cruz de Querétaro
  • Located 5 mi.from Rockdale in Milam County
  • The Coco Indians and their allies (Tops and Karankawas) gathered at this site
  • Third of three San Xavier (Gabriel) missions

Mission San Lorenzo de la Santa Cruz

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ "Ysleta Mission (Mission Corpus Christi de San Antonio de la Ysleta Sur) - Spanish Missions/Misiones Españolas (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  2. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "Corpus Christi de la Isleta Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h "Texas Missions" (PDF).
  4. ^ a b c Eckhart, George B. (1967). "Spanish Missions of Texas 1680-1800". Kiva. 32 (3): 80. ISSN 0023-1940.
  5. ^ "Socorro Mission (Mission Nuestra Señora de la Limpia Concepción del Pueblo de Socorro) - Spanish Missions/Misiones Españolas (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  6. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "Nuestra Señora de la Limpia Concepción del Socorro Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  7. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "San Antonio de Senecu". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-24.
  8. ^ a b c Eckhart, George B. (1967). "Spanish Missions of Texas 1680-1800". Kiva. 32 (3): 81. ISSN 0023-1940.
  9. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "San Clemente Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-23.
  10. ^ Antonio, Mailing Address: Headquarters 2202 Roosevelt Avenue San; Us, TX 78210 Phone: 210 932-1001 Contact. "Mission Espada - San Antonio Missions National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "Santisimo Nombre de Maria Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-24.
  12. ^ a b c Eckhart, George B. (1967). "Spanish Missions of Texas 1680-1800". Kiva. 32 (3): 82. ISSN 0023-1940.
  13. ^ Maxwell (1998), p. 17.
  14. ^ a b c d Eckhart, George B. (1967). "Spanish Missions of Texas 1680-1800". Kiva. 32 (3): 83. ISSN 0023-1940.
  15. ^ a b Eckhart, George B. (1967). "Spanish Missions of Texas 1680-1800". Kiva. 32 (3): 84. ISSN 0023-1940.
  16. ^ a b Chipman (1992), p. 113.
  17. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "Nuestro Padre San Francisco de los Tejas Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  18. ^ a b c d Eckhart, George B. (1967). "Spanish Missions of Texas 1680-1800". Kiva. 32 (3): 85. ISSN 0023-1940.
  19. ^ "Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de Acuña - Spanish Missions/Misiones Españolas (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-27.
  20. ^ a b c Maxwell (1998), p. 18.
  21. ^ Donald E. Chipman (2010). "RAMÓN, DOMINGO". Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
  22. ^ a b c Maxwell (1998), p. 19.
  23. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Nacogdoches Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-28.
  24. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "San José de los Nazonis Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-26.
  25. ^ "Keynote Lecture: Search patterns and search paths in human visual search", Visual Search 2, CRC Press, pp. 51–72, 1993-05-05, ISBN 978-0-429-18124-5, retrieved 2024-11-29
  26. ^ "Mission Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de los Ais (Mission Delores) - Spanish Missions/Misiones Españolas (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  27. ^ Maxwell (1998), p. 25.
  28. ^ Maxwell (1998), p. 26.
  29. ^ Maxwell (1999), p. 27.
  30. ^ "Mission San Antonio de Valero, The Alamo - Spanish Missions/Misiones Españolas (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  31. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "San Antonio de Valero Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  32. ^ a b Eckhart, George B. (1967). "Spanish Missions of Texas 1680-1800". Kiva. 32 (3): 86. ISSN 0023-1940.
  33. ^ Maxwell (1998), p. 28.
  34. ^ Maxwell (1998), p. 30.
  35. ^ "Mission San José y San Miguel de Aquayo - Spanish Missions/Misiones Españolas (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  36. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "San Jose y San Miguel de Aguayo Mission". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2024-11-29.
  37. ^ Chipman (1992), p. 83.
  38. ^ Weber (1992), p. 153.
  39. ^ Chipman (1992), p. 89.
  40. ^ Weber (1992), p. 154.
  41. ^ Mason (1974), p. 35.
  42. ^ Mason (1974), p. 36.
  43. ^ a b c Maxwell (1998), p. 36.
  44. ^ a b Maxwell (1998), p. 37.
  45. ^ a b c Maxwell (1998), p. 33.
  46. ^ Maxwell (1998), p. 34.
  47. ^ Gunnar Brune, "COMAL SPRINGS," Handbook of Texas Online [1], accessed March 27, 2012. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
  48. ^ Juliana Barr, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007)
  49. ^ Maxwell (1998), p. 32.
  50. ^ Barr, Peace Came in the Form, p. 126
  51. ^ "Goliad Area Historic Sites: Mission Rosario State Historic Site". Texas Parks and Wildlife. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
  52. ^ Journal of the Southwest. University of Arizona Press. 1997. p. 116.

See also

[edit]

On Spanish Missions in neighboring regions:

On general missionary history:

On colonial Spanish American history:

References

[edit]
  • Chipman, Donald E. (1998), Spanish Texas 1519-1821, Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-71188-3
  • Edmondson, J.R. (2000), The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts, Plano, Texas: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1-55622-678-0
  • Mason, Herbert Molloy Jr. (1974), Missions of Texas, Birmingham, AL: Southern Living Books
  • Maxwell, Margaret Muenker (1997), Let's Visit Texas Missions, Austin, Texas: Eakin Press, ISBN 1-57168-197-3
  • Weber, David J. (1992), The Spanish Frontier in North America, Yale Western Americana Series, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-05198-0
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