Sejmik

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Sejmik in a church by Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine

A sejmik (Polish pronunciation: [ˈsɛjmʲik], diminutive of sejm, occasionally translated as a dietine[1]; Lithuanian: seimelis) is a name of various local parliaments throught history of Poland. First sejmiks were a regional assembly in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and earlier in the Kingdom of Poland. Sejmiks existed until the end of the Commonwealth in 1795 following the partitions of the Commonwealth. In a limited form, some sejmiks existed in the partitioned Poland, and later, in the Second Polish Republic. In modern Poland, since 1999, the term has been revived as voivodeship sejmik (sejmik województwa), referring to the elected council of each of the 16 voivodeships.

Contents

[edit] Etymology

The word sejm and sejmik are derived from old Czech sejmovat, which means "to bring together" or "to summon".[2]

[edit] History

Sejmiks date to the late 14th century when they arose from gatherings of nobility, formed for military and consultative purposes.[2][3] Sejmiks were legally recognized by the 1454 Nieszawa Statutes, in a privilege granted to the szlachta (Polish nobility) by King Casimir IV Jagiellon, when the king agreed to consult certain decisions with the nobility.[1][2][4] Casimir's recognition stemmed from an attempt to limit the growing power of the magnates, and counteract it with the middle nobility.[5] The sejmiks first arose in central Poland, later followed by Prussia (1454) and Masovia (1456)

With the creation of a national Sejm in 1493, which took over competences with regards to taxation and pospolite ruszenie (previously - at Nieszawa - granted to sejmiki), the importance of regional governance has somewhat diminished.[3][5] They still played an important role in the governance of Poland, as the most direct form of political enfranchisement of the nobility.[5]

After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had about 70 sejmiks (out of those, 24 were in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).[5] Płaza estimates about a 100 at a turn of the century.[6] Those sejmiks elected 170 deputies (48 from Lithuania).[5]

In the 16th century, the middle nobility was the leading force at sejmiks. The sejmik's role grew again in the late 17th century, as the central power was weakened (the infamous period of Polish anarchy).[3][7] In the 18th century the magnates became increasingly influential at the sejimks.[3][7] This stemmed from their ability to command (bribe) masses of poorly educated, landless nobility (known as magnate's "clients" or "clientele"), as all nobles had been eligible to vote in the sejmiks.[7][8][9][10][11] Lithuanian sejmiks in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were dominated more by the magnates than those subject to the Crown of Poland proper, as the Lithuanian magnates were more powerful than their Polish counterparts.[12][13] The magnate-dominated sejmiks, gathering impoverished nobility, have been described as much more concerned with feasting and drinking than debates; for the poorest of nobility they were a rare occasion to eat and drink their fill at the tables sponsored by the magnates.[14][15] The drunken nobility was also not a stranger to fights, which could on occasion lead to fatalities. [15]

Sejmiks attained the peak of their importance at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, when they often set their own time-limits — that is, extended their authorized periods of operation.[7] In the face of the inefficient central government, with national Sejm often disrupted with liberum veto, and the office of starosta loosing much of its importance, sejmiks administered parts of the taxes, and raised their own military (wojsko powiatowe).[7] This period was also known as the "rule of sejmiks" (rządy sejmikowe).[7] Such abuses were suppressed by acts of the one-day Silent Sejm (Polish: sejm niemy) of 1717, which removed most budgetary (taxation) and military competences from the sejmiks.[7] Some sejmiks were also affected by liberum veto (till it was abolished for sejmiks in 1766);[16] this was not always the case as some decided to forgo unanimity and move to majority voting.[7]

Sejmiks were significantly reformed by the Constitution of 3 May, 1791 with the Prawo o sejmikach, the act on regional sejms , passed earlier on March 24, 1791 (article VI), recognized as part of the Constitution.[17] This law introduced major changes to the electoral ordinance, as it reduced the enfranchisement of the noble class.[8][9][11] The voting right was tied to a property qualification (one had to own or lease the land and pay taxes, or be closely related to such a person, to be eligible to vote).[8][17] Some 300,000 of 700,000 otherwise eligible nobles were thus disfranchised, much to their displeasure.[8]

The institution of the sejmik survived, albeit in a somewhat restricted fashion, even the partitions of Poland in 1795 which ended the independent existence of the Commonwealth.[18] In the Duchy of Warsaw, sejmiks elected deputies to the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw.[19] Similarly, the institution of sejmik was preserved in the Congress Poland, where sejmiks elected deputies to the Sejm of the Congress Poland (till the Sejm abolishment in 1831).[20] Even in the Lithuanian territories incorporated into the Russian Empire, some judicial sejmiks were allowed to elect lower court judges; it was the only elective representative institution to survive on the Lithuanian territories after the partition.[18] In the Prussian partition there were provincial sejmiks (Provinziallandtag) and powiat sejmiks (Kreistag).[21] Near the turn of the century, some limited local representative institutions existed in the Russian partition and Austrian partition, but they did not bear the name of sejmiks.[21]

After Poland regained Independence, provincial sejms have been restored in the Second Polish Republic, although they used the word sejm, not sejmik, in their names.[22] They included the short-lived Sejm of Central Lithuania (1921-1922), the three voivodeship sejms Silesian Parliament, Greater Poland Sejm, Pomeranian Sejm (1920-1939) preserving traditions of sejmiks in the Prussian partition, and the county sejmiks (264 in 1939).[22][23]

The sejmiks have been once again revived after the fall of communism in modern Poland, in the late 20th century. Since 1999, the term sejmik (in full sejmik województwa) has been used as the name for the elected council of each of the 16 voivodeships or regions (see voivodeship sejmik)..[24][25] The word sejmik was consciously chosen by lawmakers in order to eliminate the term rada wojewódzka (voivodeship council), as the definition conjured memories of voivodeship people's councils during the communist People's Republic of Poland era.[26]

[edit] Sejmiks of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

[edit] Features

Sejmiks were usually held on a large, open field. The nobility would elect a sejmik marshal (marszałek sejmiku: presiding officer of the sejmik, similar to the marshal of the sejm at national Sejms).[5] (This term has also been revived since 1999, but it now refers to the chairman of the voivodeship executive board rather than the presiding officer of the sejmik itself. ) While the sejmiks were originally convened by the king, soon a loophole was put into practice: the sejmiks would limit the amount of issues discussed, using it as a pretext to reconvene later at a time chosen by the marshal.[7] Voivodes and starosts also had the ability to convene some sejmiks.[16] Till the reforms of the Constitution of 3 May, all the nobility (szlachta) residing in a given territory that was holding a sejmik were eligible to participate in sejmiks.[8][27]

[edit] Types

Nobility fighting at a sejmik, Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine

We can distinguish several types of sejmiks, depending on their geographical scope:

  • General (Polish: generalny, Latin conventiones generales), held in western Poland (Greater Poland, Polish: Wielkopolska) at Koło, in southern Poland (Little Poland, Polish: Małopolska) at Nowe Miasto Korczyn, in Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze) at Warsaw, in Red Ruthenia at Sadowa Wisznia, and in Lithuania at Volkovysk.[5][28] The General Sejmiks were composed of delegates elected at the provincial sejmiks, and of Senators.[5] Their goal was to agree on a position for the Sejm Walny (General Sejm) and issue instructions for the deputies on how they were supposed to vote during the General Sejm.[5] The competences of the geneal sejmiks were defined by precedent and custom rather than law; on rare instances (1511, 1513 and 1577) when external circumstances prevented a national Sejm from being convened, the general sejmiks were seen as competent to legislate on national matters.[28] In the 15th century some general sejmiks reserved the right to accept or reject national legislation.[28] In the 16th century they were tasked with preparing drafts of legislation to be discussed at Sejms.[28] Around 17th century general sejmiks were mostly abandoned (with the exceptions of those in Royal Prussia); instead, provincial deputies would meet in special sessions during the Sejm proper.[5]
  • Provincial, Territorial, Voivoeship or County (Polish: ziemski, Latin conventiones particulares, conventiones terrestrae). The names of those sejmiks varied depending on their administrative level and local traditions; Płaza lists powiat (county) sejmiks (sejmiki powiatowe), ziemia (land, territorial) sejmiks (sejmiki ziemskie), voivodeship sejmik (sejmiki wojewódzkie) and provincial sejmiks (sejmiki prowincjonalne).[6] A theoretical hierarchy that almost never existed in practice could be drawn from the powiat, ziemia, voivodeship, general (of several voivdeships), province to the final, national sejm.[6] Almost all ziemia's had their own sejmiks, but their importance varied based on the autonomy status of the given ziemia (whether it was or was not a part of a voivodeship).[6] Powiat sejms were common on Lithuania, but were rare in the Crown of Poland, were in turn voivodeship sejms were much more common.[6] Some voivodeships could hold a single voivodeship sejmik together, and some territories could be covered by more than one sejmik.[6] The importance of those local sejmiks was greatest in the 15th century, and diminished with the formation of the General Sejm. Since then they were relegated to dealing with local matters, and electing deputies to the General Sejms.[5] They once again rose to importance in the second half of the 17th century, as the central Sejm grew weaker.[7]

Sejmiks could also be divided based on their purpose:

  • Pre-sejm (Polish: przedsejmowe) were convened by the king who sent a writ (legacja królewska) to each sejmik, outlining the reasons the next Sejm would be held.[5] Such sejmiks elected 1 to 6 deputies (poslowie) (depending on the size and importance of the given sejmik's territory) to the ordinary General Sejm (Polish: Sejm Walny) that was held every two years for six weeks, and to any extraordinary General Sejm that might be called at any time in an emergency, to sit for two weeks.[5] Sometimes pre-sejm sejmiks were referred to as electoral. In some cases, a sejmik could be called for two voivodeships - in that case it could elect more than 6 deputies. Deputies were given instructions on how to vote during the sejm proper, although on occasion the instructions could be vogue, or even give the deputies full freedom.[5] Those sejmiks arose in the late 15th century.[7]
  • Relational or Debriefing (Polish: relacyjne) sejmiks heard the reports of deputies returned from the General Sejm, usually presenting the law (konstytucje sejmowe) decreed by the Sejm.[5] They passed specific instructions with regards to the execution of sejm decrees, and other local resolutions.[7][28] Such sejmiks could also hear special requests from the king if their deputy was bound by instructions not to vote on certain issues that passed on the national sejm, where the king would request the sejmik to reconsider their decision and support the national legislation.[5] Those sejmiks arose in the 16th century.[7]
  • Electoral (Polish: elekcyjne) sejmiks elected higher voivodeship officials; in particular, judges.[5][28] Those were convened irregularly, as such offices were usually held for life.[5] Several candidates would be nominated, and the king would make the final appointment from amongst those.[7] Those sejmiks arose in the 15th century.[7]
  • Deputational or Judicial (Polish: deputackie) sejmiks elected deputies (deputaci) to tribunals (Crown Tribunal and Lithuanian Tribunal) from the times of King Stefan Batory onwards (starting with 1578 in Poland, and from 1581 in Lithuania) and met on a yearly basis.[5][7][28]
  • Administrative or Economic (Polish: gospodarcze) sejmiks oversaw voivodeship self-government.[7] Often, they were held together with the deputational sejmiks, on their next day.[7] Its decrees were known as laudas.[7] Some of the specific issues that those sejmiks addressed included: dealing with taxation (distribution of national taxes) and tax collectors, managing the local (voivodeship) taxes and treasury, recruiting local military and (from mid-1700s) election of deputies to the Treasury Tribunals.[7] Those sejmiks arose in the early 16th century.[7][28]
  • Hooded (Polish: kapturowe) with special powers for the time of the interregnum.[5] Those sejmiks were organized as confederations, and would elect confederation officials.[7] The name was derived from hoods worn in the period of royal mourning. Those sejmiks begun with the interregnum of 1572.[7][28]

[edit] See also
Coat of arms of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Coat of arms of the Second Polish Republic
Polish flag with Kotwica
Coat of arms of People's Republic of Poland
Coat of arms of Poland
Republic of Poland (since 1990)

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Daniel Stone (2001). The Polish-Lithuanian state, 1386-1795. University of Washington Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-295-98093-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA77. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  2. ^ a b c Norman Davies (2005). God's playground: a history of Poland in two volumes. Oxford University Press. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA247. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  3. ^ a b c d Jerzy Jan Lerski (1996). Historical dictionary of Poland, 966-1945. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 532. ISBN 978-0-313-26007-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=QTUTqE2difgC&pg=PA532. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  4. ^ Thomas Ertman (13 January 1997). Birth of the leviathan: building states and regimes in medieval and early modern Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-521-48427-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=dQ53vjKiwR0C&pg=PA294. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.217-219
  6. ^ a b c d e f Stanisław Płaza (1984). Sejmiki i zjazdy szlacheckie województw poznańskiego i kaliskiego: ustrój i funkcjonowanie, 1572-1632. Państwowe Wydawn. Nauk.. p. 71. ISBN 978-83-01-05834-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=KejQAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.223-225
  8. ^ a b c d e Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 173–174. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  9. ^ a b Wojciech Roszkowski (1991). Landowners in Poland, 1918-1939. East European Monographs. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-88033-196-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=QUKFAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 16 September 2011. 
  10. ^ Hamish M. Scott (1995). The European nobilities in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Longman. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-582-08071-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=whFnAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 16 September 2011. 
  11. ^ a b George Sanford (2002). Democratic government in Poland: constitutional politics since 1989. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 11–12. ISBN 9780333774755. http://books.google.com/books?id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&pg=PA11. Retrieved 5 July 2011. 
  12. ^ Isabel De Madariaga (25 September 2006). Ivan the Terrible. Yale University Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-300-11973-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA225. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 
  13. ^ Muzeum w Białymstoku (1972). Rocznik białostocki. Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe.. p. 59. http://books.google.com/books?id=4wRFAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 
  14. ^ Wojciech Kriegseisen (1991). Sejmiki Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej w XVII i XVIII wieku. Wydawn. Sejmowe. p. 101. ISBN 978-83-7059-009-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=t45FAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 
  15. ^ a b Marek Borucki (1972). Sejmy i sejmiki szlacheckie. Książka i Wiedza. pp. 174-200. http://books.google.com/books?id=X44NAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 
  16. ^ a b J. K. Fedorowicz; Maria Bogucka; Henryk Samsonowicz (1982). A Republic of nobles: studies in Polish history to 1864. CUP Archive. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-521-24093-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=p7U8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA117. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 
  17. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. p. 178. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  18. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 42-43. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  19. ^ Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.351
  20. ^ Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.364
  21. ^ a b Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.400
  22. ^ a b Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 292-299. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
  23. ^ Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.532
  24. ^ Machnikowski, Piotr, Justyna Balcarczyk, Monika Drela (2011). Contract Law in Poland. Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International. p. 21. ISBN 978-90-411-3396-0. 
  25. ^ Tatur, Melanie, ed. (2004). The Making of Regions in Post-Socialist Europe: the Impact of Culture, Economic Structure, and Institutions. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag fuer Sozialwissenshaften. pp. 65–66. ISBN 3-8100-3183-X. 
  26. ^ Regulski, Jerzy (2003). Local Government Reform in Poland: An Insiders Story. Budapest: Open Society Institute. p. 46. ISBN 963-9419-68-0. 
  27. ^ Jean W. Sedlar (April 1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500. University of Washington Press. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-295-97291-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3o5lrvuwOVwC&pg=PA292. Retrieved 24 February 2012. 
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i Jacek Jędruch (November 1982). Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493-1977: a guide to their history. University Press of America. pp. 43-45. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 13 August 2011. 
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