Sex-selective abortion and female infanticide

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Sex-selective abortion and female infanticide (also referred to as son preference or female deselection) are methods of gendercide which are practiced in areas where male children are valued over female children. Sex-selective abortion refers to the targeted abortion of female fetuses; the fetus' sex may be identified by ultrasound but also rarely by amniocentesis or another procedure. Female infanticide is the practice of selective infanticide of female infants; one common method is child abandonment. Abandoning a child of the undesired sex outside legal adoption is called sex selective abandonment. Placing a child of the undesired sex for adoption is called sex selective adoption.

These practices arise in areas where cultural norms value male children over female children.[1] Societies that practice sex selection in favor of males are quite common, especially in countries like The People's Republic of China, Korea, Taiwan, and India. [1][2]. In some region in Indonesia, however people prefer female rather than male.

In 2005, 90 million women were estimated to be missing in seven Asian countries alone, apparently due to sex-selective abortion.[3] [2] The existence of the practice appears to be determined by culture, rather than by economic conditions, because such deviations in sex ratios do not exist in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean.[2] Sex-selective abortion was rare before the late 20th century, because of the difficulty of determining the sex of the fetus before birth, but ultrasound has made such selection easier. However, prior to this, parents would alter family sex compositions through infanticide. It is believed to be responsible for at least part of the skewed birth statistics[2] in favor of males in mainland China, India, Taiwan, and South Korea.

Contents

[edit] Areas of prevalence

[edit] China

Sex-selected infanticide appears to occur infrequently in China today. However, there is a strong imbalance in sex ratios in China, which has commonly been attributed to sex-selective abortion. In addition, there appears to be some sex-selective abandonment of infants to circumvent China's one child policy.

Female deselection is common in China: Chinese tradition says that most parents want their first child to be born a male. Female deselection is also due to deeply rooted Confucian traditions, and Chinese parents desire sons in order to make familial propagation, security for the elderly, labor provision, and performance of ancestral rites. China calls the female deselection situation the "missing girl" problem.[citation needed]

Parents may wish for a male child because in many cultures only a male will carry on the family name (traditionally when a bride gets married she effectively becomes a member of the groom's family)[4], because they believe that a male is needed for work, or because they wish a male to earn an income needed to support the parents in their old age. [5]

Among the first to chronicle the practice of killing baby girls in China were Christian missionaries, such as David Abeel. The book “Drowning Girls in China" by David Mungello states:

While the extent of infanticide in China was debated, its existence was unable to be denied. In the October 1843 issue of the Chinese Repository, there appeared a carefully compiled and reasoned report on infanticide in Fujian Province by the American Protestant missionary David Abeel (1804-1846)... Abeel lived in Amoy (Xiamen) from 1842-1845 and traveled to the coastal areas of Tongan in Quanzhou Prefecture of southeastern Fujian. He visited forty different towns and villages in Tongan and based on his queries, he computed that an average of 39 percent of females were destroyed at birth. He found that the cause of infanticide was material avarice and that it was as prevalent among the rich as the poor. This was a striking conclusion because it challenged the conventional wisdom that infanticide in China was caused by poverty. Abeel called infanticide among the rich “an act of heartless calculation-a balancing of mere pecuniary profit and loss”[6].

Opposition from foreign missionaries such as Arthur Henderson Smith (1845 –1932) drew attention to this problem that was often ignored, even among other missionary workers in China[7].

The social and legal reforms since the establishment of the Chinese Republic have since made infanticide illegal, however the Chinese government reports show that the sex ratio for newborns is 847 girls per 1000 boys, and lower in rural areas such as Guangdong and Hainan (769:1000) compared to the average of 1029 girls per 1000 boys in developed countries. It is believed that the ratio would increase further to the point that, by 2020, predicting as many as 40m single men. [1]

In response to sex-selective abortions, Mainland China has made it illegal for a physician to reveal the sex of a fetus. However, even the Chinese government admits that the practice is widespread, especially in rural areas of China and among lawless groups such as ghettoized migrant workers in cities (despite denials by the government-sponsored studies) [2][3]

[edit] India

The practice of female deselection in India could be attributed to socioeconomic reasons. There is a belief by certain people in India that female children are inherently less worthy because they leave home and family when they marry, a system known to anthropologists as patrilocality. There is also a clear link in modern day India with the success of Family planning, where by couples only have 1 or 2 children, and wish to ensure that they have a male child - as opposed to older times when they could consider having several children in the hopes of a male child.

Studies in India have indicated three factors of female deselection in India, which are economic utility, sociocultural utility, and religious functions. The factor as to economic utility is that studies indicate that sons are more likely than daughters to provide family farm labor or provide in or for a family business, earn wages, and give old-age support for parents. Upon marriage, a son makes a daughter-in-law an addition and asset to the family providing additional assistance in household work and brings an economic reward through dowry payments, while daughters get married off and merit an economic penalty through dowry charges. The sociocultural utility factor of female deselection is that, as in China, in India's patrilineal and patriarchal system of families is that having at least one son is mandatory in order to continue the familial line, and many sons constitute additional status to families. The final factor of female deselection is the religious functions that only sons are allowed to provide, based on Hindu tradition, which mandate that sons are mandatory in order to kindle the funeral pyre of their late parents and to assist in the soul salvation.[8]

In some countries, including India, it is currently illegal to determine the sex of a child during pregnancy using ultra-sound scans. Laboratories are prohibited to reveal the fetus's sex during such scans. While most established labs comply with the law, determined persons can find a cheaper lab that would tell them. Like the Chinese, the Indians also use the postnatal alternative, which is sex-selective infanticide.[9] Some turn to people called dais, traditional midwives, historically female, who offer female deselection, letting the baby boys live but killing the newborn girls by giving them a sharp jerk, that is, turning them upside-down and snapping their spinal cords, and then declaring them stillborn. [10]

Laws that curb female infanticide Laws against Dowry; Laws against Sex Determination; Laws favoring Girl Education; Laws favoring Women's right; Laws favoring Equal Property Share for a daughter;

Absence of laws that favour female infanticide No laws to curb wedding expense by the bride's parents alone; No laws to curb divorced men and widowers from remarrying unmarried women from poorer background, hence making remarriage for a woman harder;

The most important task for the Indian government is to control population and increase awareness on the benefits of controlled human population which includes better lifestyle, education, environment, health and well being of every individual.

"We two, ours one", "Girl or Boy, let there just be one child" are awareness campaigns started by the government of India, but there is lack of laws that enforce single child.

The British medical journal The Lancet reported in early 2006 that there may have been close to 10 million female fetuses aborted in India over the past 20 years. This is extrapolated partly on the basis of reduction of female-to-male sex ratio from 945 per 1000 in 1991 to 927 per 1000 in 2001. The female-to-male sex ratio is even lower in cases where a couple has had a previous daughter, but no sons, dropping to 759 to 1000 for the second child if the first was a daughter, and 719 to 1000 for a third child if the first two were both daughters. However, the Indian Medical Association disputed the findings, saying gender selection had dropped since a court ruling outlawed the practice in 2001.[11] However, some[who?] say that the laws have not been effectively upheld, and successful prosecutions remain non-existent.[12]

The American Buddhist[13] reports in an article by Iqbal Latif that "Ultrasounds are taken to monitor the health of unborn children, so doctors always know their sex. Doctors tell parents, a practice that is illegal in India, yet common. Then they exercise their "right to choose." Sex selection is a violation of law and unethical. But the patriarchal society continues to turn a blind eye towards it or offer perverted excuses to justify its existence."

"Increasing female feticide in India could spark a demographic crisis where fewer women in society will result in a rise in sexual violence and child abuse as well as wife-sharing, the United Nations warned. As a result, the United Nations says an estimated 2,000 unborn girls are illegally aborted every day in India. In most parts of India, sons are viewed as breadwinners who will look after their parents and carry on the family name, but daughters are viewed as financial liabilities for whom they will have to pay substantial dowries to get married off."

[edit] Vietnam

Demographic studies have shown that the sex ratio at birth has recently increased in Vietnam. This rise is closely linked to the emergence of sex-selective abortions of female foetuses, particularly in some rural provinces in the North of the country.[14]

[edit] Inuit

Historical Inuit demographic studies often show a large child sex imbalance, with sometimes nearly two males per female. Most anthropologists attribute this at least in part to widespread female deselection in the form of infanticide. There have been theories that this is to limit population growth, balance adult population ratios (due to the high mortality rates among adult males), a psychological preference for males, or because sons made a greater contribution to their parents' lives by sharing their hunting produce.[15] This imbalance may also be related to the Hepatitis B theory, as an immunization campaign in Alaska brought a marked change in the birth ratio.[citation needed]

[edit] Hepatitis B theory

Sex-selective abortion, infanticide, and abandonment may not be the only causes of sex ratio imbalances in the countries mentioned above. Research indicates that women infected with the hepatitis B virus are 1.5 times more likely to give birth to a male. The researcher, Emily Oster, says that the higher rates of hepatitis B in China could account for 75% of the "missing girls."[16] However, new demographic research casts doubt on the hepatitis B theory. Das Gupta found that data from a huge sample of births in China show that the only women with elevated probabilities of bearing a son are those who have already borne daughters. [17]

Work by Emily Oster notes that women infected with hepatitis B virus are more likely to bear males than uninfected women.[citation needed] Her 2005 publication in The Journal of Political Economy suggests that in the past, the prevalence of hepatitis infection may have accounted for 75% of the sex ratio imbalance in China, 20% to 50% of the imbalance in the Middle East and Egypt, but less than 20% of the imbalance in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal.[citation needed] This is an active area of research and these findings are controversial.[citation needed] Today's concentrations of sex ratios imbalances are regional -in North-West India or East China- and demographic -among women whose first child was a girl and do not correspond at all to known epidemiological features.[citation needed]

[edit] Societal effects of sex-selective abortion

It is estimated that by 2020 there could be more than 35 million young "surplus males" in China and 25 million in India.[18]

Sex-selective abortion has become an issue in Southern and Eastern Asian countries, where sex-selective abortions have caused an increase in the imbalances between sex ratios of various Asian countries. Studies have estimated that sex-selective abortions have increased the ratio of males to females from the natural average of 105-106 males per 100 females to 113 males per 100 females in both South Korea and China, 110 males per 100 females in Taiwan and 107 males per 100 females among Chinese populations living in Singapore and parts of Malaysia.[19] However, a similar trend does not exist in North Korea, possibly due to limited access to prenatal sex-testing technologies.[20]

During the 1994 United Nations International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt, policy objectives intended to eliminate sex-selective abortion and infanticide, along with discrimination against female children, were stated in Article 4.15 of the Programme of Action: "...to eliminate all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference, which results in harmful and unethical practices regarding female infanticide and prenatal sex selection".[19]

Sex-selective abortion has been seen as worsening the sex ratio in India, and thus affecting gender issues related to sex compositions of Indian households. [21] According to the 2001 census, the sex-ratio in India is 107.8 males per 100 females, up from 105.8 males per 100 females in 1991. The ratio is significantly higher in certain states such as Punjab (126.1) and Haryana (122.0).[22]

It has been argued that by having a one-child policy, China has increased the rate of abortion of female fetuses, thereby accelerating a demographic decline.[23] As Chinese families are allowed only one child, and would often prefer at least one son, there are fewer daughters, thus preventing the formation of a greater number of families in the next generation.[24]

Since 2005, test kits such as the Baby Gender Mentor have become available over the internet.[25] These tests have been criticized for making it easier to perform a sex-selective abortion earlier in a pregnancy.[26] Concerns have also been raised about their accuracy.[27][28]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Goodkind, Daniel. (1999). Should Prenatal Sex Selection be Restricted?: Ethical Questions and Their Implications for Research and Policy. Population Studies, 53 (1), 49-61. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  2. ^ a b c d A. Gettis, J. Getis, and J. D. Fellmann (2004). Introduction to Geography, Ninth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 200. ISBN 0-07-252183-X
  3. ^ Layout 1
  4. ^ "Wild Swans, Jung Chang 1991
  5. ^ SpringerLink - Journal Article
  6. ^ Mungello, David (2008). Drowning Girls in China. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780742555310.  p. 70
  7. ^ Mungello, David (2008). Drowning Girls in China. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780742555310.  p. 73
  8. ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/2584732
  9. ^ http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JAz4lv4QLZMC&oi=fnd&pg=PT107&dq=Indians+also+use+the+postnatal+alternative,+which+is+sex-selective+infanticide&ots=qZAaHICd_x&sig=bCZFmom8oUeY4tdldM4gN84u6lI
  10. ^ So You Kill Your Girls? by Deepika Singh
  11. ^ http://209.85.141.104/search?q=cache:3dKM4lCjn2IJ:www.abortionreview.org/images/uploads/AR_Issue_18_Final.pdf+The+British+medical+journal+The+Lancet+reported+in+early+2006+that+there+may+have+been+close+to+10+million+female+fetuses+aborted+in+India&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us
  12. ^ Srinivasan, Sandhya. "Laws Fail to Remedy Skewed Sex Ratio." Health India. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  13. ^ http://americanbuddhist.net/selective-elimination-female-fetuses-india
  14. ^ Guilmoto CZ, Hoàng X, Ngo Van T (2009) Recent Increase in Sex Ratio at Birth in Viet Nam. PLoS ONE 4(2): e4624. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004624
  15. ^ Eric Alden Smith; S. Abigail Smith, Inuit Sex-Ratio Variation: Population Control, Ethnographic Error, or Parental Manipulation?, Current Anthropology Vol.35,No.5(Dec.,1994),pp. 595-624
  16. ^ "Hepatitis B Accounts For 40 Percent Of 'Missing' Asian Women", Science Daily, December 8, 2005
  17. ^ Human Development and Public Services - China’s “Missing Girls”—Son Preference or Hepatitis B Infections?
  18. ^ "Surplus Males: The Need for Balance." (Fall 2000). Bridges. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  19. ^ a b Goodkind, Daniel. (1995). On Substituting Sex Preference Strategies in East Asia: Does Prenatal Sex Selection Reduce Postnatal Discrimination?. Population and Development Review, 22 (1), 111-125. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  20. ^ Goodkind, Daniel. (1999). Do Parents Prefer Sons in North Korea?. Studies in Family Planning, 30 (3), 212-218. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  21. ^ Sabarwal, Shwetlena. Son Preference in India: Prevelance, Trends and Agents of Change. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  22. ^ Arnold, Fred, Kishor, Sunita, & Roy, T. K. (2002). Sex-Selective Abortions in India. Population and Development Review, 28 (4), 759-785. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  23. ^ The Effect of China's One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years, Therese Hesketh and Zhu Wei Xing, New England Journal of Medicine, 2005-09-15.
  24. ^ Das Gupta, Monica, Zhenghua, Jiang, Bobua, Li, Zbenming, Xie, Chung, Woo-in, & Hwa-Ok, Bae. (December 2002). Why is Son Preference so Persistent in East and South Asia?: A Cross-Country Study of China, India, and the Republic of Korea. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  25. ^ Goldberg, Carey (2005-06-27). "Test reveals gender early in pregnancy". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/yourlife/health/women/articles/2005/06/27/test_reveals_gender_early_in_pregnancy/. Retrieved on 2007-01-16. 
  26. ^ Masters, Clare (May 12, 2007). "Pick-your-baby test investigated". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,21715528-5001021,00.html. Retrieved on 2007-05-18. 
  27. ^ Boyce, Nell (2005-09-29). "Critics Question Accuracy of Fetus Sex Test". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4867895. Retrieved on 2007-01-16. 
  28. ^ Boyce, Nell (2005-10-10). "Questions Raised Over Accuracy of Gender Test". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4952404. Retrieved on 2007-01-23. 

[edit] External links

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